Feedback is one of the most powerful influences on learning and achievement,
but this impact can be either positive or negative. Its power is frequently
mentioned in articles about learning and teaching, but surprisingly
few recent studies have systematically investigated its meaning. This article
provides a conceptual analysis of feedback and reviews the evidence related
to its impact on learning and achievement. This evidence shows that although
feedback is among the major influences, the type of feedback and the way it
is given can be differentially effective. A model of feedback is then proposed
that identifies the particular properties and circumstances that make it effective,
and some typically thorny issues are discussed, including the timing of
feedback and the effects of positive and negative feedback. Finally, this analysis
is used to suggest ways in which feedback can be used to enhance its effectiveness
in classrooms.