4. Discussion
Insect repellents provide an important measure of protection
against potentially disease-transmitting insects such as mosquitoes
and ticks. An ideal insect repellent should have a prolonged efficacy
against a wide variety of arthropods [21]. DEET is the most efficacious
and widely used of the insect repellents registered by the US Environmental
Protection Agency [22]. Commonly, insect repellents are tested
for efficacy by applying a standard dose to human skin in vivo and
then monitoring duration of protection against a population of biting
insects [23], most commonly the A. aegypti or yellow fever mosquito
[24].While DEET fits the criterion of effective repellency against a variety
of insects [25], its duration of effectiveness is limited in practical
use, and it would be desirable to extend protection time.
Short protection times reflect rapid elimination of DEET after dermal
application through three primary pathways: absorption into the
skin; evaporation into the air; and rub-off or wash-off. Of these three,
absorption has been said to be the dominant route of product loss [5].
Inhibition of any of these elimination pathways could keep more
DEET available at the skin surface, where it is able to provide protection,
and could thereby potentially extend the efficacy of a repellent
product. The microencapsulated DEET formulations described herein
decrease the dermal absorption of DEET and extend the evaporation
duration.
Physical measurements of evaporation rate for the different formulations
described herein were performed, providing a repeatable
and defined means to compare formulation characteristics. This
method is designed to provide an initial estimation of repellent duration
before proceeding to application to man [26,27]. Using this
method and the previously established minimum evaporation rate
required, 1.2±0.3 μg/cm2/h, expected product efficacy times were
determined to be approximately 48 h for Formulation B and less
than 35 h for Formulation A. Additional in vivo testing would need
to be conducted to further establish these protection times.
Of the 44 products containing 15% DEET registered with the United
States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 11 list complete
protection times (time to first mosquito landing and/or probing attempt
[28]), determined through technical information provided by
the companies, and these average 5.9 h of protection [29]. The Canadian
government compiled data from in vivo trials against mosquito
species occurring in Canada and the commonly evaluated A. aegypti
mosquito. Their analysis of data from 63 laboratory trials and 55
field trials indicates that insect repellents containing 15% DEET provide
an average of 5 h complete protection time against mosquitoes
[24]. Both of these government studies combine data from all types
of formulations of DEET including ethanolic solutions. These reported
times are shorter than the 10 h of protection estimated by analysis of
data for the 15% ethanolic control formulation used in this study.
However, reported in vivo protection times are usually shorter than
the corresponding in vitro protection time [7], and some mismatch
is therefore expected. Normalizing the data of this study to the larger
empirical data sets would scale the protection times for microcapsule
Formulation B to between 20 to 27 h and 15 to 18 h for microcapsule
Formulation A, but do not alter the proportional significant increase
in the protection time for the encapsulated versus ethanolic DEET
formulations.
After application of a typical ethanolic DEET formulation, the
product wets the surface of the skin and after a rapid solvent evaporation
period, DEET is deposited as a thin film on the skin surface
and in the upper layers of the stratum corneum [14,16]. The upper
surface of the film is exposed to ambient air and thus provides roughly
equivalent surface areas for the competing processes of absorption
4. DiscussionInsect repellents provide an important measure of protectionagainst potentially disease-transmitting insects such as mosquitoesand ticks. An ideal insect repellent should have a prolonged efficacyagainst a wide variety of arthropods [21]. DEET is the most efficaciousand widely used of the insect repellents registered by the US EnvironmentalProtection Agency [22]. Commonly, insect repellents are testedfor efficacy by applying a standard dose to human skin in vivo andthen monitoring duration of protection against a population of bitinginsects [23], most commonly the A. aegypti or yellow fever mosquito[24].While DEET fits the criterion of effective repellency against a varietyof insects [25], its duration of effectiveness is limited in practicaluse, and it would be desirable to extend protection time.Short protection times reflect rapid elimination of DEET after dermalapplication through three primary pathways: absorption into theskin; evaporation into the air; and rub-off or wash-off. Of these three,absorption has been said to be the dominant route of product loss [5].Inhibition of any of these elimination pathways could keep moreDEET available at the skin surface, where it is able to provide protection,and could thereby potentially extend the efficacy of a repellentproduct. The microencapsulated DEET formulations described hereindecrease the dermal absorption of DEET and extend the evaporationduration.
Physical measurements of evaporation rate for the different formulations
described herein were performed, providing a repeatable
and defined means to compare formulation characteristics. This
method is designed to provide an initial estimation of repellent duration
before proceeding to application to man [26,27]. Using this
method and the previously established minimum evaporation rate
required, 1.2±0.3 μg/cm2/h, expected product efficacy times were
determined to be approximately 48 h for Formulation B and less
than 35 h for Formulation A. Additional in vivo testing would need
to be conducted to further establish these protection times.
Of the 44 products containing 15% DEET registered with the United
States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 11 list complete
protection times (time to first mosquito landing and/or probing attempt
[28]), determined through technical information provided by
the companies, and these average 5.9 h of protection [29]. The Canadian
government compiled data from in vivo trials against mosquito
species occurring in Canada and the commonly evaluated A. aegypti
mosquito. Their analysis of data from 63 laboratory trials and 55
field trials indicates that insect repellents containing 15% DEET provide
an average of 5 h complete protection time against mosquitoes
[24]. Both of these government studies combine data from all types
of formulations of DEET including ethanolic solutions. These reported
times are shorter than the 10 h of protection estimated by analysis of
data for the 15% ethanolic control formulation used in this study.
However, reported in vivo protection times are usually shorter than
the corresponding in vitro protection time [7], and some mismatch
is therefore expected. Normalizing the data of this study to the larger
empirical data sets would scale the protection times for microcapsule
Formulation B to between 20 to 27 h and 15 to 18 h for microcapsule
Formulation A, but do not alter the proportional significant increase
in the protection time for the encapsulated versus ethanolic DEET
formulations.
After application of a typical ethanolic DEET formulation, the
product wets the surface of the skin and after a rapid solvent evaporation
period, DEET is deposited as a thin film on the skin surface
and in the upper layers of the stratum corneum [14,16]. The upper
surface of the film is exposed to ambient air and thus provides roughly
equivalent surface areas for the competing processes of absorption
การแปล กรุณารอสักครู่..
