Both types of astrocytes function to support the neurons in their immediate vicinity. They provide a physical barrier between cells, maintain the ionic and pH equilibrium of the extracellular space around neurons, and continually modify the chemical environment of the neighboring cells. As shown in Figure 8.14, astrocytes form a complete lining around the external surface of the CNS (glial limitans) and around blood vessels (perivascular feet). During development, they form scaffolding along which nerve cells migrate to achieve their mature structure. During injury, the astrocytes proliferate and phagocytize dead cells. This often leads to the formation of glial scar.
In addition to these general functions, astrocytes also act in more specialized ways to facilitate neuron function. They metabolize neurotransmitters by removing them from the synaptic cleft. For example, the amino acid glutamate is taken up by astrocytes and inactivated by conversion to glutamine. Glutamine is then transported to the neuron to be re-synthesized into glutamate (see Chapter 13). More recent evidence indicates that the astrocytes can dramatically change size as part of their physiological regulation of the neuronal environment. These functions will be discussed in later sections.