History
According to the historian N. D. A. Kemp, the origin of the contemporary debate on euthanasia started in 1870.[28] Euthanasia is known to have been debated and practiced long before that date. Euthanasia was practiced in Ancient Greece and Rome: for example, hemlock was employed as a means of hastening death on the island of Kea, a technique also employed in Marseilles and by Socrates in Athens. Euthanasia, in the sense of the deliberate hastening of a person's death, was supported by Socrates, Plato and Seneca the Elder in the ancient world, although Hippocrates appears to have spoken against the practice, writing "I will not prescribe a deadly drug to please someone, nor give advice that may cause his death" (noting there is some debate in the literature about whether or not this was intended to encompass euthanasia).[29][30][31]
Early modern period
The term "euthanasia" in the earlier sense of supporting someone as they died was used for the first time by Francis Bacon (1561-1626). In his work, Euthanasia medica, he chose this ancient Greek word and, in doing so, distinguished between euthanasia interior, the preparation of the soul for death, and euthanasia exterior, which was intended to make the end of life easier and painless, in exceptional circumstances by shortening life. That the ancient meaning of an easy death came to the fore again in the early modern period can be seen from its definition in the 18th century Zedlers Universallexikon:
Euthanasia: a very gentle and quiet death, which happens without painful convulsions. The word comes from ευ, bene, well, and θανατος, mors, death.[32]
The concept of euthanasia in the sense of alleviating the process of death goes back to the medical historian, Karl Friedrich Heinrich Marx, who drew on Bacon's philosophical ideas. According to Marx, a doctor had a moral duty, to ease the suffering of death through encouragement, support and mitigation using medication. Such an "alleviation of death" reflected the contemporary Zeitgeist, but was brought into the medical canon of responsibility for the first time by Marx. Marx also stressed the distinction between the theological care of the soul of sick people from the physical care and medical treatment by doctors.[33][34]
Euthanasia in its modern sense has always been strongly opposed in the Judeo-Christian tradition. Thomas Aquinas opposed both and argued that the practice of euthanasia contradicted our natural human instincts of survival,[35] as did Francois Ranchin (1565–1641), a French physician and professor of medicine, and Michael Boudewijns (1601–1681), a physician and teacher.[30]:208[36] Other voices argued for euthanasia, such as John Donne in 1624,[37] and euthanasia continued to be practised. In 1678, the publication of Caspar Questel's De pulvinari morientibus non subtrahend, ("On the pillow of which the dying should not be deprived"), initiated debate on the topic. Questel described various customs which were employed at the time to hasten the death of the dying, (including the sudden removal of a pillow, which was believed to accelerate death), and argued against their use, as doing so was "against the laws of God and Nature".[30]:209–211 This view was shared by many who followed, including Philipp Jakob Spener, Veit Riedlin and Johann Georg Krünitz.[30]:211 Despite opposition, euthanasia continued to be practised, involving techniques such as bleeding, suffocation, and removing people from their beds to be placed on the cold ground.[30]:211–214
Suicide and euthanasia became more accepted during the Age of Enlightenment.[36] Thomas More wrote of euthanasia in Utopia, although it is not clear if More was intending to endorse the practice.[30]:208–209 Other cultures have taken different approaches: for example, in Japan suicide has not traditionally been viewed as a sin, as it is used in cases of honor, and accordingly, the perceptions of euthanasia are different from those in other parts of the world.[38]
Beginnings of the contemporary euthanasia debate
In the mid-1800s, the use of morphine to treat "the pains of death" emerged, with John Warren recommending its use in 1848. A similar use of chloroform was revealed by Joseph Bullar in 1866. However, in neither case was it recommended that the use should be to hasten death. In 1870 Samuel Williams, a schoolteacher, initiated the contemporary euthanasia debate through a speech given at the Birmingham Speculative Club in England, which was subsequently published in a one-off publication entitled Essays of the Birmingham Speculative Club, the collected works of a number of members of an amateur philosophical society.[39]:794 Williams' proposal was to use chloroform to deliberately hasten the death of terminally ill patients:
The rise of the euthanasia movement in the United States coincided with the so-called Gilded Age, a time of social and technological change that encompassed an "individualistic conservatism that praised laissez-faire economics, scientific method, and rationalism", along with major depressions, industrialisation and conflict between corporations and labor unions.[39]:794 It was also the period in which the modern hospital system was developed, which has been seen as a factor in the emergence of the euthanasia debate.[42]
Robert Ingersoll argued for euthanasia, stating in 1894 that where someone is suffering from a terminal illness, such as terminal cancer, they should have a right to end their pain through suicide. Felix Adler offered a similar approach, although, unlike Ingersoll, Adler did not reject religion. In fact, he argued from an Ethical Culture framework. In 1891, Alder argued that those suffering from overwhelming pain should have the right to commit suicide, and, furthermore, that it should be permissible for a doctor to assist – thus making Adler the first "prominent American" to argue for suicide in cases where people were suffering from chronic illness.[43] Both Ingersoll and Adler argued for voluntary euthanasia of adults suffering from terminal ailments.[43] Dowbiggin argues that by breaking down prior moral objections to euthanasia and suicide, Ingersoll and Adler enabled others to stretch the definition of euthanasia.[44]
The first attempt to legalise euthanasia took place in the United States, when Henry Hunt introduced legislation into the General Assembly of Ohio in 1906.[45]:614 Hunt did so at the behest of Anna Hall, a wealthy heiress who was a major figure in the euthanasia movement during the early 20th century in the United States. Hall had watched her mother die after an extended battle with liver cancer, and had dedicated herself to ensuring that others would not have to endure the same suffering. Towards this end she engaged in an extensive letter writing campaign, recruited Lurana Sheldon and Maud Ballington Booth, and organised a debate on euthanasia at the annual meeting of the American Humane Association in 1905 – described by Jacob Appel as the first significant public debate on the topic in the 20th century.[45]:614–616
Hunt's bill called for the administration of an anesthetic to bring about a patient's death, so long as the person is of lawful age and sound mind, and was suffering from a fatal injury, an irrevocable illness, or great physical pain. It also required that the case be heard by a physician, required informed consent in front of three witnesses, and required the attendance of three physicians who had to agree that the patient's recovery was impossible. A motion to reject the bill outright was voted down, but the bill failed to pass, 79 to 23.[39]:796[45]:618–619
Along with the Ohio euthanasia proposal, in 1906 Assemblyman Ross Gregory introduced a proposal to permit euthanasia to the Iowa legislature. However, the Iowa legislation was far broader in scope than that offered in Ohio. It allowed for the death of any person of at least ten years of age who suffered from an ailment that would prove fatal and cause extreme pain, should they be of sound mind and express a desire to artificially hasten their death. In addition, it allowed for infants to be euthanised if they were sufficiently deformed, and permitted guardians to request euthanasia on behalf of their wards. The proposed legislation also imposed penalties on physicians who refused to perform euthanasia when requested: a 6–12 month prison term and a fine of between $200 and $1000. The proposal proved to be controversial.[45]:619–621 It engendered considerable debate and failed to pass, having been withdrawn from consideration after being passed to the Committee on Public Health.[45]:623
After 1906 the euthanasia debate reduced in intensity, resurfacing periodically but not returning to the same level of debate until the 1930s in the United Kingdom.[39]:796
ประวัติตามที่นักประวัติศาสตร์ N. D. A. Kemp ต้นกำเนิดของการอภิปรายร่วมสมัยกับการุณยฆาตเริ่มในค.ศ. 1870 [28] การุณยฆาตที่รู้จักยังคง และฝึกฝนนานก่อนวันที่ การุณยฆาตถูกฝึกฝนในกรีซโบราณและโรม: ตัวอย่าง hemlock ถูกจ้างงานว่า hastening เสียชีวิตบนเกาะเกีย เทคนิคงาน ใน Marseilles และโสกราตีสในเอเธนส์ การุณยฆาต ในแง่ของ hastening โดยเจตนาของคนตาย ได้รับการสนับสนุน โดยโสกราตีส เพลโต และผู้อาวุโสในโลกโบราณ ซีนีก้าแม้ Hippocrates เหมือน ได้พูดกับแบบฝึกหัด เขียน "ฉันจะไม่สั่งยายาเสพติดร้ายแรงเพื่อโปรดคน หรือให้คำแนะนำที่อาจทำให้ตาย" (สังเกตมีบางอภิปรายวรรณคดีเกี่ยวกับหรือไม่นี้มีวัตถุประสงค์เพื่อรอบการุณยฆาต) [29] [30] [31]ยุคแรก ๆคำว่า "การุณยฆาต" ในแง่ที่ก่อนหน้านี้สนับสนุนคนพวกเขาตายถูกใช้ครั้งแรก โดยเบคอน Francis (1561-1626) ในงานของเขา การุณยฆาต medica เขาเลือกคำกรีกโบราณ แล้ว ในการทำที่แตกต่างระหว่างกายการุณยฆาต การเตรียมจิตวิญญาณการตาย และการุณยฆาต ดังนั้น ซึ่งสร้างขึ้นเพื่อทำให้สิ้นชีวิตง่าย และเจ็บ ปวด ในสถานการณ์โดยลดชีวิต ว่า โบราณความหมายของความตายที่กลายมาลำเลียงสาที่อีกครั้งในยุคแรก ๆ สามารถดูได้จากคำจำกัดความของมันในศตวรรษที่ 18 Zedlers Universallexikon:การุณยฆาต: ความอ่อนโยน และสงบตาย ซึ่งเกิดขึ้นโดยไม่เจ็บปวด convulsions คำที่มาจากความตายευ bene ดี และ θανατος mors [32]แนวคิดของการุณยฆาตในแง่ของการบรรเทาอาการการตายจะกลับไปนักประวัติศาสตร์ทางการแพทย์ คาร์ลฟรีดริชไฮน์ริช Marx ที่ดึงความคิดปรัชญาของเบคอน ตาม Marx แพทย์มีหน้าที่ทางศีลธรรม บรรเทาทุกข์ตายให้กำลังใจ สนับสนุน และลดการใช้ยา ดังกล่าวเป็น "บรรเทาความตาย" ผล Zeitgeist ร่วมสมัย แต่ถูกนำมาลงในสารบบความรับผิดชอบครั้งแรกแพทย์ โดย Marx นอกจากนี้ Marx ยังเน้นความแตกต่างระหว่างศาสนศาสตร์ดูแลจิตวิญญาณของผู้ป่วยจากการดูแลทางกายภาพและการรักษาพยาบาล โดยแพทย์ [33] [34]การุณยฆาตในสมัยนั้นได้ขอ opposed ในประเพณียิวคริสเตียนเสมอ อไควนัส Thomas ข้ามทั้งสอง และโต้เถียงว่า การปฏิบัติของการุณยฆาต contradicted สัญชาตญาณมนุษย์ของธรรมชาติของการอยู่รอด, [35] เป็นได้ Ranchin รีสฟรนคอยส์ (1565-1641), แพทย์และอาจารย์แพทย์ และ Michael Boudewijns (1601-1681), แพทย์และอาจารย์ [30]: 208 [36] เสียงอื่นโต้เถียงสำหรับการุณยฆาต เช่น Donne จอห์นใน 1624, [37] และการุณยฆาตจะปฏิบัติ ใน 1678, Caspar Questel เด pulvinari morientibus ไม่ใช่ subtrahend, ("บนหมอนซึ่งการตายควรไม่จะปราศจาก"), การประกาศเริ่มอภิปรายในหัวข้อ Questel กล่าวถึงประเพณีต่าง ๆ ที่ถูกจ้างในเวลาเร่งการตายของตาย, (รวมการเอาหมอน ที่ว่าเร่งความตายฉับพลัน), และโต้เถียงกับใช้ ทำการ "เทียบกับกฎหมายของพระเจ้าและธรรมชาติ" [30]: 209-211 นี้มุมมองถูกใช้ร่วมกันหลายคนตาม Spener จาค็อบ Philipp, Veit Riedlin และโยฮันน์จอร์จ Krünitz [30]: 211 แม้ฝ่ายค้าน การุณยฆาตที่จะปฏิบัติต่อ เกี่ยวข้องกับเทคนิคเช่นมีเลือดออก suffocation และเอาคนจากเตียงของพวกเขาจะถูกวางบนพื้นดินเย็น [30]: 211-214Suicide and euthanasia became more accepted during the Age of Enlightenment.[36] Thomas More wrote of euthanasia in Utopia, although it is not clear if More was intending to endorse the practice.[30]:208–209 Other cultures have taken different approaches: for example, in Japan suicide has not traditionally been viewed as a sin, as it is used in cases of honor, and accordingly, the perceptions of euthanasia are different from those in other parts of the world.[38]Beginnings of the contemporary euthanasia debateIn the mid-1800s, the use of morphine to treat "the pains of death" emerged, with John Warren recommending its use in 1848. A similar use of chloroform was revealed by Joseph Bullar in 1866. However, in neither case was it recommended that the use should be to hasten death. In 1870 Samuel Williams, a schoolteacher, initiated the contemporary euthanasia debate through a speech given at the Birmingham Speculative Club in England, which was subsequently published in a one-off publication entitled Essays of the Birmingham Speculative Club, the collected works of a number of members of an amateur philosophical society.[39]:794 Williams' proposal was to use chloroform to deliberately hasten the death of terminally ill patients:The rise of the euthanasia movement in the United States coincided with the so-called Gilded Age, a time of social and technological change that encompassed an "individualistic conservatism that praised laissez-faire economics, scientific method, and rationalism", along with major depressions, industrialisation and conflict between corporations and labor unions.[39]:794 It was also the period in which the modern hospital system was developed, which has been seen as a factor in the emergence of the euthanasia debate.[42]Robert Ingersoll argued for euthanasia, stating in 1894 that where someone is suffering from a terminal illness, such as terminal cancer, they should have a right to end their pain through suicide. Felix Adler offered a similar approach, although, unlike Ingersoll, Adler did not reject religion. In fact, he argued from an Ethical Culture framework. In 1891, Alder argued that those suffering from overwhelming pain should have the right to commit suicide, and, furthermore, that it should be permissible for a doctor to assist – thus making Adler the first "prominent American" to argue for suicide in cases where people were suffering from chronic illness.[43] Both Ingersoll and Adler argued for voluntary euthanasia of adults suffering from terminal ailments.[43] Dowbiggin argues that by breaking down prior moral objections to euthanasia and suicide, Ingersoll and Adler enabled others to stretch the definition of euthanasia.[44]The first attempt to legalise euthanasia took place in the United States, when Henry Hunt introduced legislation into the General Assembly of Ohio in 1906.[45]:614 Hunt did so at the behest of Anna Hall, a wealthy heiress who was a major figure in the euthanasia movement during the early 20th century in the United States. Hall had watched her mother die after an extended battle with liver cancer, and had dedicated herself to ensuring that others would not have to endure the same suffering. Towards this end she engaged in an extensive letter writing campaign, recruited Lurana Sheldon and Maud Ballington Booth, and organised a debate on euthanasia at the annual meeting of the American Humane Association in 1905 – described by Jacob Appel as the first significant public debate on the topic in the 20th century.[45]:614–616Hunt's bill called for the administration of an anesthetic to bring about a patient's death, so long as the person is of lawful age and sound mind, and was suffering from a fatal injury, an irrevocable illness, or great physical pain. It also required that the case be heard by a physician, required informed consent in front of three witnesses, and required the attendance of three physicians who had to agree that the patient's recovery was impossible. A motion to reject the bill outright was voted down, but the bill failed to pass, 79 to 23.[39]:796[45]:618–619Along with the Ohio euthanasia proposal, in 1906 Assemblyman Ross Gregory introduced a proposal to permit euthanasia to the Iowa legislature. However, the Iowa legislation was far broader in scope than that offered in Ohio. It allowed for the death of any person of at least ten years of age who suffered from an ailment that would prove fatal and cause extreme pain, should they be of sound mind and express a desire to artificially hasten their death. In addition, it allowed for infants to be euthanised if they were sufficiently deformed, and permitted guardians to request euthanasia on behalf of their wards. The proposed legislation also imposed penalties on physicians who refused to perform euthanasia when requested: a 6–12 month prison term and a fine of between $200 and $1000. The proposal proved to be controversial.[45]:619–621 It engendered considerable debate and failed to pass, having been withdrawn from consideration after being passed to the Committee on Public Health.[45]:623After 1906 the euthanasia debate reduced in intensity, resurfacing periodically but not returning to the same level of debate until the 1930s in the United Kingdom.[39]:796
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