1. an academic tradition that emphasizes teachers’ knowledge of subject
matter and their ability to transform that subject matter to promote student
understanding;
2. a social efficiency tradition that emphasizes teachers’ abilities to apply
thoughtfully a “knowledge base” about teaching that has been generated
through research on teaching;
3. a developmentalist tradition that stresses teachers’ abilities to base
their instruction on their direct knowledge of their students—their mental
readiness for particular activities; and
4. a social reconstructionist tradition that emphasizes teachers’ abilities
to analyze social contexts in terms of their contribution to greater equality,
justice, and elevation of the human condition in schooling and society.