Data Type
Data type is divided into two categories, namely parametric (interval and ratio) and non-parametric (nominal and ordinal) (Kachigan, 1991). In this study, all the dependent variables (constructs) are non-parametric nominal (categorical) data. The independent variables of TIMSS Question 10, 13 and 17 (above) are parametric interval data. The independent variable of TIMSS Question 11 is the only parametric ratio data. While no statistical analysis could be done on the nominal (categorical) type of data, only limited statistical analyses can be conducted on interval data. In terms of descriptive statistics, the central tendency in interval data is best represented by median or mode. Analysis of variance and regression analysis cannot be conducted on interval data. The ratio data is the highest degree of data on which analysis of variance (ANOVA) and regression analysis can be carried out. In this study, since none of the dependent variables are parametric data, no hypothesis of association will be carried out. However, hypothesis of difference will be carried out only for TIMSS Question 11.
Following, a literature review is first presented, followed by USA schools data analysis data and discussion, then Kuwait data analysis will be presented and compared with USA data analysis followed by the discussion of culture impact on the investigated relationship. Various conclusions are drawn together with recommendations for future research.