In a summary of research of this kind (Blum, 1984, p. 3–6), twelve characteristics of
effective teaching were identified:
1. Instruction is guided by a preplanned curriculum.
2. There are high expectations for student learning.
3. Students are carefully oriented to lessons.
4. Instruction is clear and focused.
5. Learning progress is monitored closely.
6. When students do not understand, they are retaught.
7. Class time is used for learning.
8. There are smooth and efficient classroom routines.
9. Instructional groups formed in the classroom fit instructional needs.
10. Standards for classroom behavior are high.
11. Personal interactions between teachers and students are positive.
12. Incentives and rewards for students are used to promote excellence.
Advocates of effective teaching use findings of this kind as guidelines to train teachers. An
approach to teaching which reflects these principles has been labeled Direct Instruction or
Active Teaching.