The meaning of ‘reference group’ has changed over the years. As originally used, reference groups
were narrowly defined to include only those groups with which a person interacted on a direct
basis (such as family and close friends). However, the concept has gradually broadened to include
both direct and indirect individual or group influences. Indirect reference groups consist of those
individuals or groups with whom a person does not have direct face-to-face contact, such as film
stars, sports heroes, political leaders, television personalities, or even well-dressed and interesting-looking people in the street. It is the power of the indirect reference group that helps sell the
Nike clothing, football shoes and equipment used by Cristiano Ronaldo or Wayne Rooney.