หน้า17
2 Cost Concepts ant and the Cost Accounting Information System
• Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
1. Define the term cost object and give examples of cost objects relevant to different types of decisions.
2. Describe several degrees of cost traceability implied by the terms direct cost and indirect cost.
3. State the considerations involved in creating a cost accounting information system.
4. Explain why increased attention is being given to nonfinancial performance measures.
5. Name and describe the ways costs are classified.
Cost accounting was once considered to apply only to manufacturing. Today, however,
every type and size of organization benefits from the use of cost accounting. For example,
cost accounting is used by financial institutions, transportation companies, professional
service firms, hospitals, churches, schools, colleges, universities, and governmental units,
as well as the marketing and administrative activities of manufacturing firms.
Chapter 1 introduced cost accounting as part of the management function and
described influences on cost accounting from internal and external environments.
This chapter presents the fundamental concepts of cost accounting and introduces cost
accounting as an information system.
The Cost Concept
Cost concepts have developed according to the needs of accountants, economists, and
engineers. Accountants have defined cost as “an exchange price, a forgoing, a sacrifice
made to secure benefit. In financial accounting, the forgoing or sacrifice at date of acquisition is represented by a current or future diminution in cash or other assets.”1
Frequently the term cost is used synonymously with expense. However, an expense may be defined as a measured outflow of goods or services, which is matched with revenue to determine income, or as:
. . . the decrease in net assets as a result of the use of economic services in the creation
1 Robert T. Sprouse and Maurice Moonitz, Accounting Research Study No. 3, “A Tentative Set of Broad Accounting Principles for Business Enterprises,” (New York: American Institute of Certified Public Accountants, 1962), p. 25.
หน้า18
Creation of revenues or of the imposition of taxes by governmental units. Expense is
measured by the amount of the decrease in assets or the increase in liabilities related
to the production and delivery of goods and the rendering of services…expense in its
broadest sense includes all expired costs which are deductible from revenues. 2
To contrast cost and expense, consider a purchase of raw materials for cash. Because net assets are unaffected, there is no expense. The firm’s resources are simply converted from cash to materials. The materials are acquired at some cost, but they are not yet an expense. When the firm later sells the output into which the raw materials have been incorporated, the cost of the materials is written off among expenses on the comprehensive income statement. Every expense is a cost, but not every cost is an expense; assets are costs, for example, but they are not (yet) expenses.
The term cost is made specific when it is modified by such descriptions as direct,
prime, conversion, indirect, fixed, variable, controllable, product, period, joint, estimated, standard, sunk, or out of pocket. Each modification implies a certain attribute that
is important in measuring cost. Each of these costs is recorded and accumulated when
management assigns costs to inventories, prepares financial statements, plans and controls costs, makes strategic plans and decisions, chooses among alternatives, motivates
personnel, and evaluates performance. The accountant involved in planning and decision making must also work with future, replacement, differential, and opportunity costs,
none of which is recorded and reported in external financial statements.
Cost Objects
A cost object, or cost objective, is defined as any item or activity for which costs are
accumulated and measured. The following items and activities can be cost objects:
Product Process
Batch of like units Department
Customer order Division
Contract Project
Product line Strategic goal
The concept of a cost object is one of the most pervasive ideas in accounting. The
selection of a cost object provides the answer to the most fundamental question about cost: The cost of what?
Because of the multiple needs in cost finding, planning, and control, cost accounting systems are multidimensional. For example, it is necessary to assign costs to each product unit, but also necessary to plan and control costs for which individual managers are assigned responsibility, on a departmental, geographical, or functional basis. The design of cost accounting systems and their implementation must address these multiple requirements.
Traceability of Costs to Cost Objects
Once the cost object is selected, measurement of costs depends heavily on the traceability
of costs to the cost object. The traceability of costs determines how objective, reliable,
2lbid., p. 49.
หน้า19
and meaningful the resulting cost measure will be, and therefore how confident a decision maker can be in understanding and relying on the cost measure as a basis for prediction and decision making.
The traceability of costs to a cost object varies by degree. A common way of characterizing costs is to label them as either direct or indirect costs of a particular cost object, as if there were only two degrees of traceability. In fact, degrees of traceability exist
along a continuum.
To illustrate the different degrees of traceability on the continuum, the cost object is defined here as a product unit.
At the extreme of directly traceable costs are those items that can be physically or
contractually identified as components of the finished unit of product. For example, the
unit can be examined, weighed, and measured to find the type and quantity of each raw
material and component part incorporated in it, and royalty or patent license agreements
can be read to find what fee is owed to a patent holder for permission to manufacture the
unit. These are the clearest examples of direct costs.
Near that extreme are the costs that can be empirically traced to the unit’s production by observing the production process. These include: the labor expended to convert raw materials into finished product and some material-handling labor; paper patterns and other materials that are consumed in the production of each unit but are not physically incorporated into it; and some energy costs. Of course, not all items that are physically or empirically traceable to a unit will be important enough to justify the effort required to trace and record them. Whether tracing is justified depends on how precise a measure of direct costs is needed and how difficult or costly the tracing will be. For that reason, cost accounting systems generally treat as direct costs only some of the cost items that conceivably could be traced directly to the product unit.
Beyond those cost items that are physically, contractually, or empirically traceable,
some degree of arbitrariness enters any attempt to identify additional costs for a product
unit. For example, the traceable material and labor costs of a small number of defective units that may be produced along with the good units could be included logically as
part of the cost of the good units. But exactly how much should be included is subject
to debate. Is it the average actual amount of the cost of defective units? Is it the actual
amount that occurs on the next production run? Or is it the amount that would occur
under ideal conditions (which may be zero)? Even when the purpose of the ultimate cost
measure is known in advance, the answer to this question is not always clear.
Moving from this extreme toward the middle of the continuum, we find costs trace
able to a batch or lot of like units of the product, such as setup cost (the cost of adjusting
machinery before the batch can be produced). Setup cost can be identified with a single
product unit in the batch only by means of an allocation: the setup costs can be divided
by the actual number of units produced in a batch, or by the normal number, or by the
ideal number. Again, an essentially arbitrary choice is required if these costs are to be
allocated to each unit of product. Notice that if the batch is defined as the cost object,
setup costs can be classified as directly traceable.
Further along on the continuum are costs traceable to all the units of a particular
product ever produced. These include the costs of initial product design, development,
testing, process engineering, and worker training. To identify these with a single product unit requires allocation over the total number of units of the product to be produced
in the entire product life cycle. That number of units is generally difficult to predict,
and even the most experienced manager in the industry would estimate it with considerable forecasting error.
หน้า20
Following the pattern of the continuum, the next costs are those traceable to process used in making the product, then the costs traceable to the department in which the process is carried out, then the costs traceable to the building or plant location in which
the department is located, and so on. In each of these steps, a sufficiently broad redefinition of the cost object causes some costs to be reclassified as directly traceable costs.
At the far extreme of the continuum are those costs that can be identified with a unit of product only by the most arbitrary and indefensible allocations. An example is the allocation of a small fraction of general corporate-level costs, such as income taxes and bond interest, to each unit of product produced by each department, of each plant, of each division of the corporation. The number of arithmetic steps involved in such an allocation, and the very arbitrary choice
หน้า17
2 Cost Concepts ant and the Cost Accounting Information System
• Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
1. Define the term cost object and give examples of cost objects relevant to different types of decisions.
2. Describe several degrees of cost traceability implied by the terms direct cost and indirect cost.
3. State the considerations involved in creating a cost accounting information system.
4. Explain why increased attention is being given to nonfinancial performance measures.
5. Name and describe the ways costs are classified.
Cost accounting was once considered to apply only to manufacturing. Today, however,
every type and size of organization benefits from the use of cost accounting. For example,
cost accounting is used by financial institutions, transportation companies, professional
service firms, hospitals, churches, schools, colleges, universities, and governmental units,
as well as the marketing and administrative activities of manufacturing firms.
Chapter 1 introduced cost accounting as part of the management function and
described influences on cost accounting from internal and external environments.
This chapter presents the fundamental concepts of cost accounting and introduces cost
accounting as an information system.
The Cost Concept
Cost concepts have developed according to the needs of accountants, economists, and
engineers. Accountants have defined cost as “an exchange price, a forgoing, a sacrifice
made to secure benefit. In financial accounting, the forgoing or sacrifice at date of acquisition is represented by a current or future diminution in cash or other assets.”1
Frequently the term cost is used synonymously with expense. However, an expense may be defined as a measured outflow of goods or services, which is matched with revenue to determine income, or as:
. . . the decrease in net assets as a result of the use of economic services in the creation
1 Robert T. Sprouse and Maurice Moonitz, Accounting Research Study No. 3, “A Tentative Set of Broad Accounting Principles for Business Enterprises,” (New York: American Institute of Certified Public Accountants, 1962), p. 25.
หน้า18
Creation of revenues or of the imposition of taxes by governmental units. Expense is
measured by the amount of the decrease in assets or the increase in liabilities related
to the production and delivery of goods and the rendering of services…expense in its
broadest sense includes all expired costs which are deductible from revenues. 2
To contrast cost and expense, consider a purchase of raw materials for cash. Because net assets are unaffected, there is no expense. The firm’s resources are simply converted from cash to materials. The materials are acquired at some cost, but they are not yet an expense. When the firm later sells the output into which the raw materials have been incorporated, the cost of the materials is written off among expenses on the comprehensive income statement. Every expense is a cost, but not every cost is an expense; assets are costs, for example, but they are not (yet) expenses.
The term cost is made specific when it is modified by such descriptions as direct,
prime, conversion, indirect, fixed, variable, controllable, product, period, joint, estimated, standard, sunk, or out of pocket. Each modification implies a certain attribute that
is important in measuring cost. Each of these costs is recorded and accumulated when
management assigns costs to inventories, prepares financial statements, plans and controls costs, makes strategic plans and decisions, chooses among alternatives, motivates
personnel, and evaluates performance. The accountant involved in planning and decision making must also work with future, replacement, differential, and opportunity costs,
none of which is recorded and reported in external financial statements.
Cost Objects
A cost object, or cost objective, is defined as any item or activity for which costs are
accumulated and measured. The following items and activities can be cost objects:
Product Process
Batch of like units Department
Customer order Division
Contract Project
Product line Strategic goal
The concept of a cost object is one of the most pervasive ideas in accounting. The
selection of a cost object provides the answer to the most fundamental question about cost: The cost of what?
Because of the multiple needs in cost finding, planning, and control, cost accounting systems are multidimensional. For example, it is necessary to assign costs to each product unit, but also necessary to plan and control costs for which individual managers are assigned responsibility, on a departmental, geographical, or functional basis. The design of cost accounting systems and their implementation must address these multiple requirements.
Traceability of Costs to Cost Objects
Once the cost object is selected, measurement of costs depends heavily on the traceability
of costs to the cost object. The traceability of costs determines how objective, reliable,
2lbid., p. 49.
หน้า19
and meaningful the resulting cost measure will be, and therefore how confident a decision maker can be in understanding and relying on the cost measure as a basis for prediction and decision making.
The traceability of costs to a cost object varies by degree. A common way of characterizing costs is to label them as either direct or indirect costs of a particular cost object, as if there were only two degrees of traceability. In fact, degrees of traceability exist
along a continuum.
To illustrate the different degrees of traceability on the continuum, the cost object is defined here as a product unit.
At the extreme of directly traceable costs are those items that can be physically or
contractually identified as components of the finished unit of product. For example, the
unit can be examined, weighed, and measured to find the type and quantity of each raw
material and component part incorporated in it, and royalty or patent license agreements
can be read to find what fee is owed to a patent holder for permission to manufacture the
unit. These are the clearest examples of direct costs.
Near that extreme are the costs that can be empirically traced to the unit’s production by observing the production process. These include: the labor expended to convert raw materials into finished product and some material-handling labor; paper patterns and other materials that are consumed in the production of each unit but are not physically incorporated into it; and some energy costs. Of course, not all items that are physically or empirically traceable to a unit will be important enough to justify the effort required to trace and record them. Whether tracing is justified depends on how precise a measure of direct costs is needed and how difficult or costly the tracing will be. For that reason, cost accounting systems generally treat as direct costs only some of the cost items that conceivably could be traced directly to the product unit.
Beyond those cost items that are physically, contractually, or empirically traceable,
some degree of arbitrariness enters any attempt to identify additional costs for a product
unit. For example, the traceable material and labor costs of a small number of defective units that may be produced along with the good units could be included logically as
part of the cost of the good units. But exactly how much should be included is subject
to debate. Is it the average actual amount of the cost of defective units? Is it the actual
amount that occurs on the next production run? Or is it the amount that would occur
under ideal conditions (which may be zero)? Even when the purpose of the ultimate cost
measure is known in advance, the answer to this question is not always clear.
Moving from this extreme toward the middle of the continuum, we find costs trace
able to a batch or lot of like units of the product, such as setup cost (the cost of adjusting
machinery before the batch can be produced). Setup cost can be identified with a single
product unit in the batch only by means of an allocation: the setup costs can be divided
by the actual number of units produced in a batch, or by the normal number, or by the
ideal number. Again, an essentially arbitrary choice is required if these costs are to be
allocated to each unit of product. Notice that if the batch is defined as the cost object,
setup costs can be classified as directly traceable.
Further along on the continuum are costs traceable to all the units of a particular
product ever produced. These include the costs of initial product design, development,
testing, process engineering, and worker training. To identify these with a single product unit requires allocation over the total number of units of the product to be produced
in the entire product life cycle. That number of units is generally difficult to predict,
and even the most experienced manager in the industry would estimate it with considerable forecasting error.
หน้า20
Following the pattern of the continuum, the next costs are those traceable to process used in making the product, then the costs traceable to the department in which the process is carried out, then the costs traceable to the building or plant location in which
the department is located, and so on. In each of these steps, a sufficiently broad redefinition of the cost object causes some costs to be reclassified as directly traceable costs.
At the far extreme of the continuum are those costs that can be identified with a unit of product only by the most arbitrary and indefensible allocations. An example is the allocation of a small fraction of general corporate-level costs, such as income taxes and bond interest, to each unit of product produced by each department, of each plant, of each division of the corporation. The number of arithmetic steps involved in such an allocation, and the very arbitrary choice
การแปล กรุณารอสักครู่..
