In the UK, chest pain is among the leading causes of
presentation to the emergency department. Assessment
and differentiation of the various chest pain
presentations can be challenging due to variation in
clinical presentation, patient history of the symptom, and
the potential for atypical presentation in women, older
persons, and those with diabetes or chronic kidney
disease. In addition, not all chest pain is cardiac in origin
as there may be several non-cardiac causes of chest pain,
from musculoskeletal to pulmonary in origin. A thorough
nursing assessment yielding a subjective history and
physical assessment is the cornerstone in accurately
identifying a cause for chest pain and identifying those at
high risk of an adverse cardiac event. The aim of this
article is to provide an overview of chest pain assessment
and differential diagnoses of chest pain, with a focus on
non-ischaemic causes. It is beyond the scope of this article
to outline the management of chest pain.
Chest pain assessment
Assessment of chest pain, according to Scott and Mac
Innes (2006), consists of a problem-solving approach that
aids in identifying a cause and quantifying the patient’s
symptoms. The acuity of the patient will determine the
format of the nursing assessment. For the patient who is
haemodynamically compromised, the assessment is
targeted, brief and succinct, with the objective of
yielding relevant information in a prompt manner that
will aid in diagnoses and risk stratification. In comparison,
those who are stable are able to undergo a more comprehensive
assessment.
Integral to the assessment process is that of history
taking. The purpose of history taking is to ascertain what
has caused the patient to seek healthcare assistance and is
a precise chronological description of the patient’s current
health status. A well-taken history is a record of the
patient’s experiences, not only of the current illness but
also of his or her life, including his or her
culture and beliefs, family situation and previous health
(Bickley, 2009). The elements of history taking are
outlined in Table 1.
Zitkus (2010) commented that in relation to history
taking it is important to remember that each patient
will bring his or her own past experience of pain with
him or her as well as differing levels of education,
socioeconomic status, ethnicity and individual pain
threshold. All of these factors will influence how the
patient will describe his or her current pain experience.
Effective communication skills are pivotal in obtaining a
comprehensive, relevant patient history. According to
Tagney (2008), there is a need to be astute, open and sensitive
to verbal and nonverbal cues, as well as being totally
focused on the patient in order to obtain the reason for
seeking healthcare.
Oriolo and Albarran (2010) state that the assessment
of chest pain should focus on the history of the pain,
cardiovascular risk factor profile, previous personal
history of ischaemic heart disease and prior relevant
investigations. A clear history and description of chest
pain and its associated symptoms are pivotal in guiding
investigations and treatment (Table 2). Although the aim
is to obtain a clear history and description of symptoms, in
the author’s clinical experience some patients have difficulty
in describing their chest pain symptoms due to an
atypical presentation or vagueness of their symptoms. The
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE,
2010) in its guidelines on chest pain of recent onset recommend
using the Diamond and Forrester (1979) model,
which focuses on age, gender and typicality of symptoms
Kate O’Donovan Post Graduate Course CoOrdinator Cardiovascular Nursing Mater Misericordiae University
Hospital Eccles St Dublin 7 Ireland. Email: kodonovan@mater.ie
Abstract
Chest pain is a common presenting complaint in healthcare. Causes of
chest pain are multifactorial, but one of the greatest concerns is that
the pain is cardiac in nature. A succinct, focused and targeted
assessment can help confirm or rule our a cardiac cause as well as
highlighting other potential causes. The assessment focuses on the
quality, location, duration and characteristics, as well as the relieving
factors, for a person with chest pain. Pain assessment tools aid in
eliciting such information and serve to compliment the assessment
process. Haemodynamic assessment aims to determine the stability of
the patient and thus determine the need for subsequent nursing
intervention and the timeliness of the assessment. It is beyond the
scope of this paper to discuss investigations or the management of
chest pain.
Key words
Chest pain w Assessment w Pain assessment tools w Potential
causes w Differential diagnosis w Vital signs
In the UK, chest pain is among the leading causes of
presentation to the emergency department. Assessment
and differentiation of the various chest pain
presentations can be challenging due to variation in
clinical presentation, patient history of the symptom, and
the potential for atypical presentation in women, older
persons, and those with diabetes or chronic kidney
disease. In addition, not all chest pain is cardiac in origin
as there may be several non-cardiac causes of chest pain,
from musculoskeletal to pulmonary in origin. A thorough
nursing assessment yielding a subjective history and
physical assessment is the cornerstone in accurately
identifying a cause for chest pain and identifying those at
high risk of an adverse cardiac event. The aim of this
article is to provide an overview of chest pain assessment
and differential diagnoses of chest pain, with a focus on
non-ischaemic causes. It is beyond the scope of this article
to outline the management of chest pain.
Chest pain assessment
Assessment of chest pain, according to Scott and Mac
Innes (2006), consists of a problem-solving approach that
aids in identifying a cause and quantifying the patient’s
symptoms. The acuity of the patient will determine the
format of the nursing assessment. For the patient who is
haemodynamically compromised, the assessment is
targeted, brief and succinct, with the objective of
yielding relevant information in a prompt manner that
will aid in diagnoses and risk stratification. In comparison,
those who are stable are able to undergo a more comprehensive
assessment.
Integral to the assessment process is that of history
taking. The purpose of history taking is to ascertain what
has caused the patient to seek healthcare assistance and is
a precise chronological description of the patient’s current
health status. A well-taken history is a record of the
patient’s experiences, not only of the current illness but
also of his or her life, including his or her
culture and beliefs, family situation and previous health
(Bickley, 2009). The elements of history taking are
outlined in Table 1.
Zitkus (2010) commented that in relation to history
taking it is important to remember that each patient
will bring his or her own past experience of pain with
him or her as well as differing levels of education,
socioeconomic status, ethnicity and individual pain
threshold. All of these factors will influence how the
patient will describe his or her current pain experience.
Effective communication skills are pivotal in obtaining a
comprehensive, relevant patient history. According to
Tagney (2008), there is a need to be astute, open and sensitive
to verbal and nonverbal cues, as well as being totally
focused on the patient in order to obtain the reason for
seeking healthcare.
Oriolo and Albarran (2010) state that the assessment
of chest pain should focus on the history of the pain,
cardiovascular risk factor profile, previous personal
history of ischaemic heart disease and prior relevant
investigations. A clear history and description of chest
pain and its associated symptoms are pivotal in guiding
investigations and treatment (Table 2). Although the aim
is to obtain a clear history and description of symptoms, in
the author’s clinical experience some patients have difficulty
in describing their chest pain symptoms due to an
atypical presentation or vagueness of their symptoms. The
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE,
2010) in its guidelines on chest pain of recent onset recommend
using the Diamond and Forrester (1979) model,
which focuses on age, gender and typicality of symptoms
Kate O’Donovan Post Graduate Course CoOrdinator Cardiovascular Nursing Mater Misericordiae University
Hospital Eccles St Dublin 7 Ireland. Email: kodonovan@mater.ie
Abstract
Chest pain is a common presenting complaint in healthcare. Causes of
chest pain are multifactorial, but one of the greatest concerns is that
the pain is cardiac in nature. A succinct, focused and targeted
assessment can help confirm or rule our a cardiac cause as well as
highlighting other potential causes. The assessment focuses on the
quality, location, duration and characteristics, as well as the relieving
factors, for a person with chest pain. Pain assessment tools aid in
eliciting such information and serve to compliment the assessment
process. Haemodynamic assessment aims to determine the stability of
the patient and thus determine the need for subsequent nursing
intervention and the timeliness of the assessment. It is beyond the
scope of this paper to discuss investigations or the management of
chest pain.
Key words
Chest pain w Assessment w Pain assessment tools w Potential
causes w Differential diagnosis w Vital signs
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