For instance, Macklon et al. (1994), and Cumming and Ning (2003), observed that Al decreases inorganic phosphorus (Pi ) availability by forming Al–Pi precipitates in the rhizosphere and limits phosphorus uptake and translocation within plants. In addi- tion, Al interferes with the bivalent cations (e.g. Ca2+ and Mg2+ )assimilation in plants (Lux and Cumming, 2001; Cumming and Ning, 2003). These effects result in nutrient deficiencies in plants, consequently reducing plant performance.