The first devices used to treat epilepsy were forms of electrical stimulation. Electrical
stimulation to map human brain function may have started in 1884, when the Cincinnati
surgeon Robert Bartholow observed contralateral movements with electrical stimulation of
cortex during repair of cranial osteomyelitis
104
. Wilder Penfield and Herbert Jasper
pioneered the technique of mapping cortex with electrical stimulation, and Spiegel and
Wycis of mapping and sometimes stimulating deep structures
104
; however, these
investigators did not use stimulation as treatment. The first therapeutic brain stimulation
efforts were in the field of psychiatry, by Heath
105
and Delgado
106
in the early 1950’s.
Some of Heath’s patients had epilepsy as well as psychiatric problems, and epileptiform
spikes were observed at septal nuclei and other stimulation sites
105
.
Deep brain electrical stimulation to reduce seizures is credited to the New York
Neurosurgeon, Irving Cooper, who reported improvement in seizure frequency with
stimulation either of cerebellum
107
or the anterior thalamus
108
. Cooper’s positive results
were qualitative and uncontrolled with little detail on individual degrees of improvement
and comorbid conditions . In subsequent years, about a dozen uncontrolled studies showed
benefit of cerebellar stimulation to treat epilepsy, but two small blinded studies were
negative
109
. DBS for epilepsy fell out of favor for many years and came back to interest
with the success of vagus nerve stimulation for epilepsy and DBS for movement disorders.
After cerebellum, centromedian thalamus was the primary target of stimulation, pioneered
by the Velasco’s in Mexico City
110111
, but a small cross-over trial was negative
112
.
A series of studies showed benefit of DBS of anterior thalamus in experimental models of
epilepsy
113
. Based upon promising animal experimentation and the early work of Cooper,
six small unblinded trials of anterior nucleus stimulation for medication-resistant epilepsy
were published
64
, showing a conglomerate mean 47% reduction in seizures compared to
baseline. Uncontrolled stimulation studies are subject to several types of potential bias,
including placebo effect, regression to the mean, micro-lesion effects from electrode
placement and other unknown confounding factors. Therefore, Fisher and associates
114
performed a randomized, placebo-controlled, multi-center trial of anterior nucleus
stimulation in patients with medication-resistant partial and secondarily generalized
seizures, called SANTE, for stimulation of the anterior nucleus of thalamus for epilepsy.
Randomization was performed on 110 patients either to 5 V or 0 V (placebo) stimulation of
bilateral anterior nuclei of thalamus, at 145 pulses per second, 0.9 ms pulses referential to
the stimulation case, with stimulation on for 1 minute and off for 5 minutes. The group had a
median of about 20 seizures per month and a mean of 57 seizures per month at baseline.
Stimulation was begun one month after implantation of the deep brain leads, and continued
for a three-month blinded phase. Figure 4 shows seizure frequency relative to baseline.
Seizure frequency declined 20% in the month after implantation prior to initiation of
electrical stimulation, either to nonspecific or micro-lesion effects. By the end of the blinded
phase, the treated group continued to improve, to a median level 40.5% less than baseline,
compared to only 14.5% in the 0 V group (p=0.038). The control group received 5V
stimulation at the end of the blinded phase. Seizures declined over the next two months to
levels encountered in the initially stimulated group. Improvement was sustained, with
The first devices used to treat epilepsy were forms of electrical stimulation. Electricalstimulation to map human brain function may have started in 1884, when the Cincinnatisurgeon Robert Bartholow observed contralateral movements with electrical stimulation ofcortex during repair of cranial osteomyelitis 104. Wilder Penfield and Herbert Jasperpioneered the technique of mapping cortex with electrical stimulation, and Spiegel andWycis of mapping and sometimes stimulating deep structures 104; however, theseinvestigators did not use stimulation as treatment. The first therapeutic brain stimulationefforts were in the field of psychiatry, by Heath 105and Delgado 106in the early 1950’s.Some of Heath’s patients had epilepsy as well as psychiatric problems, and epileptiformspikes were observed at septal nuclei and other stimulation sites 105.Deep brain electrical stimulation to reduce seizures is credited to the New YorkNeurosurgeon, Irving Cooper, who reported improvement in seizure frequency withstimulation either of cerebellum 107or the anterior thalamus 108. Cooper’s positive resultswere qualitative and uncontrolled with little detail on individual degrees of improvementand comorbid conditions . In subsequent years, about a dozen uncontrolled studies showedbenefit of cerebellar stimulation to treat epilepsy, but two small blinded studies werenegative 109. DBS for epilepsy fell out of favor for many years and came back to interestwith the success of vagus nerve stimulation for epilepsy and DBS for movement disorders.
After cerebellum, centromedian thalamus was the primary target of stimulation, pioneered
by the Velasco’s in Mexico City
110111
, but a small cross-over trial was negative
112
.
A series of studies showed benefit of DBS of anterior thalamus in experimental models of
epilepsy
113
. Based upon promising animal experimentation and the early work of Cooper,
six small unblinded trials of anterior nucleus stimulation for medication-resistant epilepsy
were published
64
, showing a conglomerate mean 47% reduction in seizures compared to
baseline. Uncontrolled stimulation studies are subject to several types of potential bias,
including placebo effect, regression to the mean, micro-lesion effects from electrode
placement and other unknown confounding factors. Therefore, Fisher and associates
114
performed a randomized, placebo-controlled, multi-center trial of anterior nucleus
stimulation in patients with medication-resistant partial and secondarily generalized
seizures, called SANTE, for stimulation of the anterior nucleus of thalamus for epilepsy.
Randomization was performed on 110 patients either to 5 V or 0 V (placebo) stimulation of
bilateral anterior nuclei of thalamus, at 145 pulses per second, 0.9 ms pulses referential to
the stimulation case, with stimulation on for 1 minute and off for 5 minutes. The group had a
median of about 20 seizures per month and a mean of 57 seizures per month at baseline.
Stimulation was begun one month after implantation of the deep brain leads, and continued
for a three-month blinded phase. Figure 4 shows seizure frequency relative to baseline.
Seizure frequency declined 20% in the month after implantation prior to initiation of
electrical stimulation, either to nonspecific or micro-lesion effects. By the end of the blinded
phase, the treated group continued to improve, to a median level 40.5% less than baseline,
compared to only 14.5% in the 0 V group (p=0.038). The control group received 5V
stimulation at the end of the blinded phase. Seizures declined over the next two months to
levels encountered in the initially stimulated group. Improvement was sustained, with
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