4.7 Characteristics of Multiple Bonds
Atoms of the Period 2 elements C, N, and O readily form double bonds with one
another, with themselves, and (especially for oxygen) with atoms of elements in
later periods. However, double bonds are rarely found between atoms of elements
in Period 3 and later periods, because the atoms are so large and bond lengths
consequently so great that it is difficult for their p-orbitals to take part in effective
side-by-side overlap.
To describe carbon–carbon double bonds, we use the pattern provided by ethene,
CH2ฃCH2. As remarked in Section 4.1, it is known from experimental data
that all six atoms in ethene lie in the same plane, with bond angles very close to
120_. Bond angles of 120_ suggest a trigonal planar electron arrangement and sp2
hybridization for each C atom (40). Each of the three hybrid orbitals on the C atom
has one electron available for bonding; the fourth valence electron of each C atom
occupies the unhybridized 2p-orbital, which is perpendicular to the plane formed
by the hybrids. The two carbon atoms form a _-bond by overlap of an sp2 hybrid
orbital on each atom. The H atoms form _-bonds with the remaining lobes of the
sp2 hybrids. The electrons in the two unhybridized 2p-orbitals form a _-bond
through side-by-side overlap. FIGURE 4.19 shows how the electron density in the
_-bond lies above and below the axis of the C฿C _-bond.
In benzene, the C atoms and their attached H atoms all lie in the same plane,
with the C atoms forming a hexagonal ring. To describe the bonding in the Kekul้
structures of benzene (Section 3.7) in terms of VB theory, we need hybrid orbitals
that match the 120_ bond angles of the hexagonal ring. Therefore, we take each
carbon atom to be sp2 hybridized, as in ethene (FIG. 4.20). The three hybrid orbitals
each have one electron, with the fourth valence electron in an unhybridized
2p-orbital perpendicular to the plane of the hybrids. The sp2 hybrid orbitals on
each carbon atom overlap with those of their neighbors, which results in six
_-bonds between them. The remaining sp2 hybrid orbital on each carbon atom
overlaps with a hydrogen 1s-orbital, resulting in six carbon–hydrogen bonds.
Finally, the side-by-side overlap of the 2p-orbitals on each C atom results in a
_-bond between each carbon atom and one of its neighbors (FIG. 4.21). The resulting
pattern of _-bonds matches either of the two Kekul้ structures, and the overall
structure is a resonance hybrid of the two. This resonance ensures that the electrons
in the _-bonds are spread around the entire ring (FIG. 4.22).