In terrestrial ecosystems, the earlier timing of spring events, and poleward and upward shifts in plant and animal ranges, have been linked with high confidence to recent warming.[143] Future climate change is expected to particularly affect certain ecosystems, including tundra, mangroves, and coral reefs.[149] It is expected that most ecosystems will be affected by higher atmospheric CO2 levels, combined with higher global temperatures.[157] Overall, it is expected that climate change will result in the extinction of many species and reduced diversity of ecosystems.[158]