Dissolution
This step may involve the handling of relatively large volumes of volatile solvents. Although most solvents used in the organic laboratory are of relatively low toxicity, it is prudent to avoid inhaling their vapours. If adding solvent fails to dissolve any more solid, it is likely that insoluble impurities are present.
Decolouration and Filtration
After dissolution of the solid mixture, the solution may be colored. This signals the presence of impurities if the desired compound is known to be colorless. If the compound is colored, contaminants may alter the colour of the solution; for example, impurities should be suspected if the substance is yellow but the solution is green. Of course, the decolouration step is unnecessary if the solution is colorless.
Coloured impurities may often be removed by adding a small amount of decolourizing carbon (powder charcoal) to the hot, but not boiling, solution. Adding it to a boiling solution is likely to cause the liquid to froth over the top of the flask, resulting in the loss of product. After the decolourizing carbon is added, the solution is heated to boiling for a few minutes while being continuously stirred or swirled to prevent bumping.
Completely removing decolourizing carbon by hot filtration may be difficult if the powdered rather than the pelletized form is used, because the finely divided solid particles may pass through filter paper or the cotton of a Pasteur filtering pipette. If this occurs, the dark particles should be visible in the filtrate.
Crystallization
The hot solution of solute is allowed to cool slowly to room temperature, and crystallization should occur. During cooling and crystallization, the solution should be protected from airborne contaminants by covering the opening with a piece of filter paper, an inverted beaker, or by loosely plugging it with a clean cork. Rapid cooling by immersing the flask in water or an ice-water bath is undesirable because the crystals formed tend to be very small, and their resulting large surface area may foster adsorption of impurities from solution. In this sense, the crystals are functioning like decolorizing carbon! Generally the solution should not be disturbed as it cools, since this also leads to production of small crystals. The formation of crystals larger than about 2 mm should be avoided because some of the solution may become occluded or trapped within the crystals. The drying of such crystals is more difficult, and impurities may be left in them. Should overly large crystals begin to form, brief, gentle agitation of the solution normally induces production of smaller crystals.
Failure of crystallization to occur after the solution has cooled somewhat usually means that either too much solvent has been used or that the solution is supersaturated. A supersaturated solution can usually be made to produce crystals by seeding. A crystal of the original solid is added to the solution to induce crystallization, which may then be quite rapid. If no solid is available and a volatile solvent is being used, it is sometimes possible to produce a seed crystal by immersing the tip of a glass stirring rod or metal spatula in the solution, withdrawing it, and allowing the solvent to evaporate. The crystals that form on the end of the rod or spatula are then reinserted into the solution to initiate crystallization. Alternatively, crystallization can often be induced by using a glass rod to rub the inside surface of the crystallization vessel at or just above the air/solution interface. This should be done carefully, as excessive force may scratch or break the vessel or result in a broken rod.
Simple crystallization works well with large quantities of material.
Step 1. Place the solid in a Erlenmeyer flask. A beaker is not recommended because the rapid and dangerous loss of flammable vapours of hot solvent occurs much more easily from the wide mouth of a beaker than from an Erlenmeyer flask. Furthermore, solid precipitate can rapidly collect on the walls of the beaker as the solution becomes saturated because the atmosphere above the solution is less likely to be saturated with solvent vapour in a beaker than in an Erlenmeyer flask.
Step 2. Add a minimal amount of solvent and heat the mixture to the solvent's boiling point in a sand bath or water bath. Stir the mixture by twirling a spatula between the thumb and index finger. A magnetic stir bar may be used if a magnetic stirring hot plate is used.
Step 3. Continue stirring and heating while adding solvent dropwise until all of the material has dissolved.
Step 4. Add a decolorizing agent (powdered charcoal, ca. 2% by weight; or better, activated-carbon pellets, ca. 0.1 % by weight), to remove coloured minor impurities and other resinous by-products.
Step 5. Filter (by gravity) the hot solution into a second Erlenmeyer flask (preheat the funnel with hot solvent). This removes the decolorizing agent and any insoluble material initially present in the sample.
Step 6. Evaporate enough solvent to reach saturation (a large amount of solvent is used.).
Step 7. Cool to allow crystallization (crystal formation will be better if this step takes place slowly). After the system reaches room temperature, cooling it in an ice bath may improve the yield.
Filtration and removal of solvent
The crystalline product is isolated by filtration. The technique for doing this varies depending on the scale on which the crystallization was performed. The solid product is isolated by vacuum filtration using a Büchner or Hirsch funnel and a clean, dry filter flask. The crystals normally are washed with a small amount of pure, cold solvent, with the vacuum off; the vacuum is then reapplied to remove as much solvent as possible from the filter cake. Care must be taken in this step to ensure that the filter paper is not lifted off the bed of the filter while the vacuum is off; this could result in loss of product when the vacuum is reapplied to remove the washes.
Further cooling of the filtrate, sometimes called the mother liquor, in an ice-water or ice salt bath may allow isolation of a second crop of crystals. The filtrate can also be concentrated by evaporating part of the solvent and cooling the residual solution. The crystals isolated as a second or even a third crop are likely to be less pure than those in the first. Consequently, the various crops should not be combined until their purity has been assessed by comparison of their melting points.
Crystals drying
The final traces of solvent are removed by transferring the crystals from the filter paper of the Büchner or Hirsch funnel to a watch-glass or vial. Alternatively, solids may also be transferred to fresh pieces of filter or weighing paper for drying. This is a less desirable option, however, because fibers of paper may contaminate the product when it is ultimately transferred to a container for submission to your instructor. It is good practice to protect the crystals from airborne contaminants by covering them with a piece of filter paper or using loosely inserted cotton or a cork to plug the opening of the vessel containing the solid.
Removing the last traces of solvent from the crystalline product may be accomplished by air- or oven-drying. With the latter option, the temperature of the oven must be below the melting point of the product.
Melting point
The melting point of a solid is defined as the temperature at which the solid and liquid phases are in equilibrium. The time necessary to obtain such an equilibrium value is not practical for organic chemists; therefore, the melting-point range of temperatures between the first sign of melting and the complete melting of the solid is taken. A narrow range indicates high purity of the sample, whereas a broad range usually indicates an impure sample.
To determine a melting-point range, a small sample of the solid in close contact with a thermometer is heated in an oil bath or metal heating block so that the temperature rises at a slow, controlled rate. As the thermal energy imparted to the substance becomes sufficient to overcome the forces holding the crystals together, the substance melts. The rate of heating should be controlled so that the melting range is as narrow as possible. The temperature is recorded when the first melting appears and when the last solid disappears. A sharp melting point is generally accepted to have a range of 1 to 2°C.
Impurities will usually cause the melting-point range to become wider and melting to occur at lower temperatures than that of a pure compound. An impurity dissolved in the substance lowers the vapour pressure of the liquid, causing the solid to melt and restore the equilibrium among the three phases. The amount of lowering will depend on several factors, among which are the molal freezing point lowering constant (Kt), the concentration, and whether the solute is ionic or not. A typical curve for the lowering of the melting point of substance A by added amounts of substance B is shown in Figure 1.
The melting point of pure A is 120°C and that of B is 110°C. The upper curves connecting points A with E and E with B are the boundary above which mixtures of A and B of any composition are completely melted. The lower horizontal line through point E is a boundary representing the temperature (99°C) below which the sample is completely solid at any composition. In the areas between these phase boundaries are mixtures of one or the other pure solids plus liquid.
Experiment 1: Crystallization of benzoic acid
Melting point = 122-123 C
Apparatus: 250-mL Erlenmeyer flask, 100-mL beaker, graduated cylinder, apparatus for magnetic stirring, two filter papers, funnel, apparatus for vacuum filtration.
Dissolution
1. Place 1.5 g of impure benzoic acid in an 250-mL Erlenmeyer flask equipped for magnetic stirring or with boiling stones.
2. Measure 70 mL of water into the graduated cylinder and add a 60-m
Dissolution
This step may involve the handling of relatively large volumes of volatile solvents. Although most solvents used in the organic laboratory are of relatively low toxicity, it is prudent to avoid inhaling their vapours. If adding solvent fails to dissolve any more solid, it is likely that insoluble impurities are present.
Decolouration and Filtration
After dissolution of the solid mixture, the solution may be colored. This signals the presence of impurities if the desired compound is known to be colorless. If the compound is colored, contaminants may alter the colour of the solution; for example, impurities should be suspected if the substance is yellow but the solution is green. Of course, the decolouration step is unnecessary if the solution is colorless.
Coloured impurities may often be removed by adding a small amount of decolourizing carbon (powder charcoal) to the hot, but not boiling, solution. Adding it to a boiling solution is likely to cause the liquid to froth over the top of the flask, resulting in the loss of product. After the decolourizing carbon is added, the solution is heated to boiling for a few minutes while being continuously stirred or swirled to prevent bumping.
Completely removing decolourizing carbon by hot filtration may be difficult if the powdered rather than the pelletized form is used, because the finely divided solid particles may pass through filter paper or the cotton of a Pasteur filtering pipette. If this occurs, the dark particles should be visible in the filtrate.
Crystallization
The hot solution of solute is allowed to cool slowly to room temperature, and crystallization should occur. During cooling and crystallization, the solution should be protected from airborne contaminants by covering the opening with a piece of filter paper, an inverted beaker, or by loosely plugging it with a clean cork. Rapid cooling by immersing the flask in water or an ice-water bath is undesirable because the crystals formed tend to be very small, and their resulting large surface area may foster adsorption of impurities from solution. In this sense, the crystals are functioning like decolorizing carbon! Generally the solution should not be disturbed as it cools, since this also leads to production of small crystals. The formation of crystals larger than about 2 mm should be avoided because some of the solution may become occluded or trapped within the crystals. The drying of such crystals is more difficult, and impurities may be left in them. Should overly large crystals begin to form, brief, gentle agitation of the solution normally induces production of smaller crystals.
Failure of crystallization to occur after the solution has cooled somewhat usually means that either too much solvent has been used or that the solution is supersaturated. A supersaturated solution can usually be made to produce crystals by seeding. A crystal of the original solid is added to the solution to induce crystallization, which may then be quite rapid. If no solid is available and a volatile solvent is being used, it is sometimes possible to produce a seed crystal by immersing the tip of a glass stirring rod or metal spatula in the solution, withdrawing it, and allowing the solvent to evaporate. The crystals that form on the end of the rod or spatula are then reinserted into the solution to initiate crystallization. Alternatively, crystallization can often be induced by using a glass rod to rub the inside surface of the crystallization vessel at or just above the air/solution interface. This should be done carefully, as excessive force may scratch or break the vessel or result in a broken rod.
Simple crystallization works well with large quantities of material.
Step 1. Place the solid in a Erlenmeyer flask. A beaker is not recommended because the rapid and dangerous loss of flammable vapours of hot solvent occurs much more easily from the wide mouth of a beaker than from an Erlenmeyer flask. Furthermore, solid precipitate can rapidly collect on the walls of the beaker as the solution becomes saturated because the atmosphere above the solution is less likely to be saturated with solvent vapour in a beaker than in an Erlenmeyer flask.
Step 2. Add a minimal amount of solvent and heat the mixture to the solvent's boiling point in a sand bath or water bath. Stir the mixture by twirling a spatula between the thumb and index finger. A magnetic stir bar may be used if a magnetic stirring hot plate is used.
Step 3. Continue stirring and heating while adding solvent dropwise until all of the material has dissolved.
Step 4. Add a decolorizing agent (powdered charcoal, ca. 2% by weight; or better, activated-carbon pellets, ca. 0.1 % by weight), to remove coloured minor impurities and other resinous by-products.
Step 5. Filter (by gravity) the hot solution into a second Erlenmeyer flask (preheat the funnel with hot solvent). This removes the decolorizing agent and any insoluble material initially present in the sample.
Step 6. Evaporate enough solvent to reach saturation (a large amount of solvent is used.).
Step 7. Cool to allow crystallization (crystal formation will be better if this step takes place slowly). After the system reaches room temperature, cooling it in an ice bath may improve the yield.
Filtration and removal of solvent
The crystalline product is isolated by filtration. The technique for doing this varies depending on the scale on which the crystallization was performed. The solid product is isolated by vacuum filtration using a Büchner or Hirsch funnel and a clean, dry filter flask. The crystals normally are washed with a small amount of pure, cold solvent, with the vacuum off; the vacuum is then reapplied to remove as much solvent as possible from the filter cake. Care must be taken in this step to ensure that the filter paper is not lifted off the bed of the filter while the vacuum is off; this could result in loss of product when the vacuum is reapplied to remove the washes.
Further cooling of the filtrate, sometimes called the mother liquor, in an ice-water or ice salt bath may allow isolation of a second crop of crystals. The filtrate can also be concentrated by evaporating part of the solvent and cooling the residual solution. The crystals isolated as a second or even a third crop are likely to be less pure than those in the first. Consequently, the various crops should not be combined until their purity has been assessed by comparison of their melting points.
Crystals drying
The final traces of solvent are removed by transferring the crystals from the filter paper of the Büchner or Hirsch funnel to a watch-glass or vial. Alternatively, solids may also be transferred to fresh pieces of filter or weighing paper for drying. This is a less desirable option, however, because fibers of paper may contaminate the product when it is ultimately transferred to a container for submission to your instructor. It is good practice to protect the crystals from airborne contaminants by covering them with a piece of filter paper or using loosely inserted cotton or a cork to plug the opening of the vessel containing the solid.
Removing the last traces of solvent from the crystalline product may be accomplished by air- or oven-drying. With the latter option, the temperature of the oven must be below the melting point of the product.
Melting point
The melting point of a solid is defined as the temperature at which the solid and liquid phases are in equilibrium. The time necessary to obtain such an equilibrium value is not practical for organic chemists; therefore, the melting-point range of temperatures between the first sign of melting and the complete melting of the solid is taken. A narrow range indicates high purity of the sample, whereas a broad range usually indicates an impure sample.
To determine a melting-point range, a small sample of the solid in close contact with a thermometer is heated in an oil bath or metal heating block so that the temperature rises at a slow, controlled rate. As the thermal energy imparted to the substance becomes sufficient to overcome the forces holding the crystals together, the substance melts. The rate of heating should be controlled so that the melting range is as narrow as possible. The temperature is recorded when the first melting appears and when the last solid disappears. A sharp melting point is generally accepted to have a range of 1 to 2°C.
Impurities will usually cause the melting-point range to become wider and melting to occur at lower temperatures than that of a pure compound. An impurity dissolved in the substance lowers the vapour pressure of the liquid, causing the solid to melt and restore the equilibrium among the three phases. The amount of lowering will depend on several factors, among which are the molal freezing point lowering constant (Kt), the concentration, and whether the solute is ionic or not. A typical curve for the lowering of the melting point of substance A by added amounts of substance B is shown in Figure 1.
The melting point of pure A is 120°C and that of B is 110°C. The upper curves connecting points A with E and E with B are the boundary above which mixtures of A and B of any composition are completely melted. The lower horizontal line through point E is a boundary representing the temperature (99°C) below which the sample is completely solid at any composition. In the areas between these phase boundaries are mixtures of one or the other pure solids plus liquid.
Experiment 1: Crystallization of benzoic acid
Melting point = 122-123 C
Apparatus: 250-mL Erlenmeyer flask, 100-mL beaker, graduated cylinder, apparatus for magnetic stirring, two filter papers, funnel, apparatus for vacuum filtration.
Dissolution
1. Place 1.5 g of impure benzoic acid in an 250-mL Erlenmeyer flask equipped for magnetic stirring or with boiling stones.
2. Measure 70 mL of water into the graduated cylinder and add a 60-m
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