There is an argument, at least in terms of curriculum prominence, that physical education has made good gains in many Western countries since the turn of the twentieth century (e.g., see Thorburn, Jess, & Atencio, 2011; Culpan & Galvan, 2012). On this evidence, conferences such as the Berlin World Summit on Physical Education in 1999 can claim some success in alerting various governments of the urgent need to invest in high quality physical education programs and provide improved professional development opportunities for teachers. Nevertheless, despite this relatively good news, the educational contribution of physical education continues to be open to some doubt and uncertainty. At a practical level, Kirk's (2010) futures analysis critique indicates a series of continuing own goals; most notably a reliance on dislocated introductory level teaching that takes place within rather repetitious and unadventurous program arrangements that do little to nurture students growth. More widely, questions continue over aims and values. For example, from a health perspective, Gard (2011) has advised that obesity concerns might come to overwhelm and distort educational values such is the unease national governments have over health care issues. On this basis, a more narrowly conceived instrumental role could see physical education contribute more obviously to bringing about health and physical activity improvements. From a sport perspective, events such as the London 2012 Olympic Games have led many high-level politicians to argue for the benefits of competitive team sports and the role school physical education programs should play in promoting this form of participation (Morris, 2012). Thus, recent evidence and debate continues to highlight how physical education operates in a crowded space and one which stakeholders working in associated areas (e.g., health and sport) might wish to influence more directly (Macdonald, 2011).
There are also continuing concerns regarding dualism and whether the mind should be privileged relative to the body in education. If so, physical education might be better arguing that it makes a distinctive contribution to schooling, but to stop short of arguing that it is of educational value (Carr, 1997). Many of these types of educational difficulties have arisen from responding to Richard Peter's (1966) highly influential analytical philosophical treatise that prioritized the development of the rational mind and contained some rather adverse comments about physical education. For example, Peters (1966, p. 159) considered that games are non-serious and morally unimportant and lack “a wide ranging cognitive content” as they are based on mere know-how. Sporting success on these terms (e.g., becoming a scratch golfer) would result in a cul-de-sac of boredom as the basic know-how skills would have been mastered. These types of difficulty would be inconceivable “in the same sort of way with science or philosophy” as these disciplines contain limitless potential for increasing knowledge and for making discerning judgments (Peters, 1966, p. 158). However, in recent years, MacAllister (2013a) has reminded us that in Peters’ later writing there was a greater recognition of the value practical activities contained, provided they are transformed by a theoretical understanding and/or pursued to the point of excellence. McNamee and Bailey (2010) also noted that Peters had, even from his earliest writings, a concern and interest in developing relevant psychological habits, skills, values, and knowledge. In addition, Katz (2010) considered that Peters was well aware that the content of education needed to be continually justified and made relevant for each historical period. For example, Peters later clarified that his original writings on educational aims were too specific and lacked a full enough account of worthwhile activities (Peters, 1983). Likewise, Hirst (a close associate of Peters) recognized that the “main error in my (original) position was seeing theoretical knowledge as the logical foundation for the development of sound practical knowledge and rational personal development” (Hirst, 1993, p. 197). Given the changing range of influences which have surrounded discussions of educational aims in recent decades, we concur with Reid's (1996, p. 8) view that there is a continuing need “to show how or whether physical education can be given a legitimate place within the category of recognized educational activities, how it can be located in school curriculum (and) how it can be justified in terms of educational goals and values.”
Therefore, in this article, we review key aspects of John Dewey's philosophy as we consider that his writings can usefully inform debate about the aims and values of physical education, and of how it might be constructively organized for students in schools. In scoping out his educational aims, Dewey rejects both external imposition of knowledge and an educational “free for all.” Instead, Dewey claims that education is an inherently social process and that approval and encouragement can and should foster personal growth. In many countries this is precisely the type of less formal curriculum arrangements that now exist. In Scotland, for example, there is a renewed emphasis on learner engagement and interdisciplinary and integrated learning contexts across the entire 3–18-years curriculum along with pedagogical encouragement for teachers to make full use of their increased autonomy and curriculum decision-making responsibility (Scottish Executive, 2004). Furthermore, recognition that Dewey generally considered motor (practical) activities to have important links with mental development (Dewey, 1902) should encourage physical educators to consider the fruitful possibilities for building more meaningful student-centered and values-based curriculum.