Here pupils apply a model in contexts where the outcome will be positive: that is, where it will successfully represent the chosen behaviour of a phenomenon. Arnold and Millar (1996) used a series of allied teaching models to introduce the notions of heat, temperature, thermal equilibrium to 12–13 year olds in the UK and, having done so, required them to apply these ideas to a range of other contexts. Halloun (1996, 1998) caused students to use scientific models in the solution of a range of paradigmatic problems in physics.