The second direction is strengthening professional teacher-development programs for mobile-enhanced instruction. Most review research into the use of mobile devices for education has emphasized that one of the largest obstacles to imple-
menting effective mobile learning programs is insufficient preparation of the teachers (Frohberg et al., 2009; Penuel, 2006). The essence of effective professional development for technology-enhanced inquiry proposed by Gerard et al. (2011) is also
applicable to mobile learning programs. Teachers should be encouraged to modify already developed mobile-integrated education programs, and to gradually customize them into their own personalized program rather than simply designing
their own program around the use of technology. The latter approach implicitly leads teachers to technology-adapted instruction, which means that the educational practices of the teachers may be restricted by the functions of technology, and may make it difficult for teachers to change their existing beliefs and habits. In contrast, customizing existing research-based
mobile learning programs not only transfers researchers' visions and experiences for the use of technology to teachers, but also minimizes the time teachers spend on formulating new ideas and performing trial-and-error iterative procedures (Gerard et al., 2011; Penuel et al., 2007). To facilitate the transition of researchers' vision, experiences, and skills to school teachers, it is also helpful to involve university-level researchers as mentors or collaborators. Diverse functions and types of hardware and software are available for mobile devices, but conversely the complexity is also high, and hence designing and using them can readily impose additional overhead on teachers. The plethora of technological knowledge and resources that
are available to researchers for educational technology means that their participation in a program can result in their knowledge and experience greatly assisting the teachers' autonomy in implementation.