To date, only a few studies have empirically examined the use and effects of subjectivity
in performance measurement. Of particular relevance to the current study, Ittner, Larcker,
and Meyer (2003) analyzed how subjective performance measures were used in a leading
international financial services provider. They found that leaving room for subjectivity allowed
supervisors to ignore many performance measures, and short-term financial measures
became the de facto determinants of bonus awards. Employee dissatisfaction with the system
was so high that the firm reverted to basing bonuses strictly on revenue. Moers (2005)
also found that the use of subjective performance measures induces performance evaluation
bias. In a study of managerial compensation plans in a privately owned Dutch maritime
firm, he found that the use of multiple objective and subjective performance measures was
related to more compressed and more lenient performance ratings. These findings by Ittner,
Larcker, and Meyer (2003) and Moers (2005) are useful for understanding the uses and
limitations of subjective performance measures; however, their generalizability is limited
by each study having focused on only one company.
In sum, prior studies have argued for performance measurement to extend beyond just
financial measures, and importantly for this study, a case has been made for differentiating
between objective and subjective nonfinancial measures. Although arguments have been
proffered about the downsides of performance measurement diversity, in general, and about
the inclusion of subjective performance measures, in particular, the expectation is that: