RELEVANT INTERPERIOD TAX ALLOCATION
Kenneth E. Stone, PhD
University of Central Missouri
Warrensburg, MO 64093
660-422-0852
kstone@ucmo.edu
Jason Bergner, PhD
University of Nevada, Reno
Reno, NV 89557
816-442-5555
jasonbergner@gmail.com
Jo Lynne Koehn, PhD
University of Central Missouri
Warrensburg, MO 64093
660-543-4631
koehn@ucmo.edu
ISO
RELEVANT INTERPERIOD TAX ALLOCATION
ABSTRACT
United States Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) has required interperiod tax
allocation (ITA) since 1967 (APB Opinion No. 11). Currently, Statement of Financial Accounting
Standards (SFAS) No. 109 (ASC 740) requires the "Asset-Liability" method as opposed to the
previously used "Deferred" method. Similar interperiod tax allocation is required under
International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS); neither IFRS nor US GAAP allows the
discounting of deferred tax.
Critics of ITA argue that deferred tax may persist for many future years because new temporary
differences are likely to equal or exceed reversing differences. However, deferred tax is not
reported at present value. Financial analysts often ignore reported deferred tax because it
does not provide adequate information for predicting future cash flows. Furthermore, the
process of ITA is very expensive and may not be cost-effective.
Logical analysis suggests that deferred tax should be recognized at present value. This
conclusion is supported by several research efforts that indicate investors and analysts
generally find undiscounted deferred tax to be irrelevant and either combine it with equity
(ignore it) or attempt some sort of discounting process, if accounting standards require
interperiod tax allocation, a relevant, present value amount of deferred tax should be required
instead of a generally irrelevant, undiscounted amount. A realistic, present value method that
can be used in practice for financial reporting is presented.
INTRODUCTION
United States Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) has required interperiod tax
allocation (ITA) since 1967 (APB Opinion No. 11). Currently, Statement of Financial Accounting
Standards (SFAS) No. 109 (ASC 740) requires the "Asset-Liability" method as opposed to the
previously used "Deferred" method. Although the methods are very similar, the emphasis is
now on reporting the required deferred tax asset and/or liability instead of placing the primary
emphasis on the matching process. Interperiod tax allocation required under International
Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) is very similar to US GAAP; neither iFRS nor US GAAP
allows the discounting of deferred tax.
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In general, interperiod tax allocation recognizes deferred tax equal to the difference between
the financial accounting tax provision (computed on pre-tax accounting income excluding
permanent differences) and the current-year tax liability. This approach is supposed to better
match revenues and expenses (income and tax) and be a better indicator of earnings. The
deferred tax on the balance sheet is also supposed to indicate the existence of a future tax
liability or future tax reduction. The asset—liability method goes a step further and adjusts the
deferred tax to the correct balance, and this correction (usually for a change in the tax rate) is
an adjustment to the current-year tax effect. Therefore, in those years when the deferred tax is
adjusted for a change in a previous estimate, the matching is sacrificed to some extent in order
to report the required amount of deferred tax.
Critics of ITA argue that deferred tax is likely to persist for many future years because new
temporary differences are likely to equal or exceed reversing differences. However, deferred
tax is not reported at present value. Financial analysts often ignore reported deferred tax
(White et al. 1994) because it does not provide adequate information for predicting future cash
flows. Furthermore, the process of ITA is very expensive and may not be cost-effective. This
paper presents a discussion and analysis of these issues and introduces a suggested new
reporting model.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Critics of ITA use various arguments. Ketz (2010) argues that deferred tax should be completely
eliminated from financial accounting because deferred tax assets and liabilities are neither
assets nor liabilities. At least three problems emerge with defining deferred tax as a liability.
First, deferred tax is not a present obligation of the firm. The tax becomes an obligation in
future tax periods only if taxable income is present. Second, the liability itself is not a result of a
past transaction between the tax authority and the firm. Third, all other long-term obligations
are reported at the present value of future cash flows; whereas, deferred tax is not discounted
(Lasman and Weil 1978). This leads to the conclusion that even if a deferred tax liability is a
legitimate liability, the undiscounted amount is inflated.
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From an economic viewpoint, taxes paid later are less burdensome than taxes paid now
(Lasman and Weil 1978). Financial statements ignore this basic but important point. Firms are
likely to be able to defer the liability indefinitely as the company grows. If the company stops
expanding and begins to shrink, in theory the temporary differences should reverse and result
in additional tax payments. However, shrinking firms may experience operating losses, which
will result in deferred liabilities being erased, not paid (Herring and Jacobs 1976).
The information content of deferred tax has been studied often in the literature, usually by
testing the relationship between deferred tax and stock prices/returns. Beaver and Dukes
(1972) found stock prices have the highest association with earnings using interperiod tax
allocation as opposed to earnings before allocation (ranked second) and cash flows (ranked
third). However, in a later study. Beaver and Dukes (1973) say their 1972 findings were
anomalous. Rayburn (1986) found mixed results when investigating the association between
stock returns and the use of deferred tax. The association between interperiod tax allocation
and stock returns depended on the assumptions made about the disposition of the deferred
tax. Chaney and Jeter (1994) found a negative correlation between interperiod tax allocation
and stock returns. Their study indicated the market response to earnings was more positive
when deferred tax is less volatile.
More recent studies relating tax deferrals to the valuation of firm equity indicate a weak
correlation of deferred tax with equity valuation. Amir, Kirschenheiter, and Willard (1997)
conclude that investors obtain some information from deferred tax by attempting to discount
its various components, and the present value of deferred tax from depreciation and
amortization is close to zero. Also, data indicate deferred tax assets from carryforwards are
considered of little value because investors do not expect them to be utilized. Lee (1998) also
eoneludes that investors diseount the reported deferred tax in order to arrive at a relevant
present value for equity valuation. Chludek (2011) eoneludes that deferred tax assets are more
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reversing than deferred tax liabilities; however, deferred tax is mostly irrelevant because the
reported amount bears little relationship to the present value of any ultimate payments.
The studies noted above that use the association between interperiod tax allocation and equity
value (stock returns) have the following limitations: (1) the findings are based on the
assumption that equity value is an appropriate measure of deferred tax information, i.e., one
has to believe in market efficiency, and; (2) primary and secondary effects of an item on the
market are often difficult to separate, e.g., the effect of reporting specific amounts of deferred
tax cannot be separated from the general effect of income smoothing caused by practicing
interperiod tax allocation.
Other researchers have studied the link between deferred tax and cash flows. Cheung et al.
(1997) used Lorek and Willinger's (1996) model to estimate the contribution of deferred tax
data to forecasts of future tax payments and prediction of future cash flows. The results
suggest that on average each dollar of tax liability reported results in a cash outflow of 11 to 28
cents. This study has the following limitations: (1) the cost effectiveness of reporting deferred
tax and applying the cash flow model to the reported data is not addressed; (2) the benefit of
using the model for a specific firm is limited because of the small amount of additional
information provided, and; (3) the model uses a proxy for operating cash flows and has several
other limitations and simplifying assumptions which may not be appropriate.
DISPOSITION OF DEFERRED TAX
The behavior of deferred tax balances may be divided into at least six different categories: (1)
once established, the deferred tax remains approximately constant for an extended, indefinite
time because new temporary differences offset reversing differences; (2) the deferred tax
continues to increase for an extended, indefinite time because new temporary differences
continue to be larger than reversing differences; (3) occasional temporary differences reverse
quickly causing elimination of the deferred tax; (4) the deferred tax fluctuates over time, but
does not decline to a zero balance; (5) the deferred tax is effectively eliminated as the result of
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an operating loss or losses; and (6) deferred tax is no longer related to the original entity
because of a business combination. In order to interpret the effect of deferred tax on the
financial position of a company, the financial analyst needs to know the most likely behavior
pattern of the deferred tax.
If the deferred tax remains the same or continues to grow over an extended period of time
(casesl and 2), the present value of the asset or liability is small compared to the undiscounted
amount. Even though the undiscounted de