Hefzalla (1987) has taken the position that the principle of visual primacy in film has led to the use of the visual
element of film as a tool for communicating more than is actually shown. Thus film has an implying power [his term]
more powerful than simple, literal linguistics. Related research has disproportionately focused on cinematic production
variables: lighting, focus, shot selection, camera angle, image placement, camera movement, and such (e.g., McCain,
Chilberg & Wakshlag, 1977; Metallinos & Tiemens, 1977; Kaha, 1993; Kipper, 1986). While many of these results are
of interest to the visual literacy and instructional technology fields, the research is the primary province of those doing encoding research in the fields of mass communication and film studies.