Early initiation of treatment for acute exacerbations has been the primary goal of most COPD integrative disease programmes. Evidence regarding the effectiveness of integrative care programmes is conflicting. A randomised trial found that an intensive self-management comprehensive educational programme in patients previously hospitalised for exacerbations decreased hospital readmissions during the following year [230]. Another randomised trial similarly reported that a single 1.5-h education session, an action plan for self-treatment of exacerbations, and monthly nurse case management phone follow-ups reduced COPD-related hospitalisations or emergency room visits by 34% [234]. However, a similar trial that compared comprehensive case management programme with standardised COPD care was prematurely discontinued due to excessive mortality in the comprehensive case management group [235]. Several other studies in COPD have failed to show significant improvement in outcomes with predominantly nurse-led home management programmes [236]. Reasons for the disparate results are unclear, but it appears that close contact with patients who have a high disease burden is crucial for maximising success. Variations in the programme components, the duration of the intervention, and the outcomes measured have led to uncertainty about how to develop a successful integrative care model for COPD [237].