1. Scientific knowledge is empirically based. “Empirical” refers to knowledge claims based upon observations of the natural world. While some scientific ideas are theoretical and are derived from logic and reasoning, all scientific ideas must ultimately conform to observational or experimental data. Empirical evidence, in the form of quantitative and qualitative data, forms foundation for scientific knowledge.
2. Scientific knowledge is both reliable and tentative. Scientific knowledge should not be viewed as absolute, but tentative and revisionary. For example, many scientific ideas have remained largely unchanged over long periods of time; however, scientific knowledge can change in light of new evidence and new ways of thinking. New scientific ideas are subject to skepticism, especially if they challenge well-established scientific ideas. Once generally accepted by the scientific community, scientific knowledge is durable. Therefore, it is reasonable to have confidence in scientific knowledge while still recognizing that new evidence may result in changes in the future. Related to the tentative nature of science is the idea that regardless of the amount of empirical evidence supporting a scientific idea (even a law), it is impossible to prove that the idea holds for every instance and under every condition. Einstein’s modifications to the well-established Newtonian Laws are a classic case in point. Thus, “Truth” in the absolute sense, lies outside the scope of science (Popper, 1988). Scientific laws do not provide absolutely true generalizations, rather, they hold under very specific conditions (Cartwright, 1983, 1988). Scientific laws are our best attempts to describe patterns and principals observed in the natural world. As human constructs, these laws should not be viewed as infallible. Rather, they provide useful generalizations for describing and predicting behavior under specific circumstances.
3. Scientific knowledge is the product of observation and inference. Scientific knowledge is developed from a combination of both observations and inferences. Observations are made from information gathered with the five senses, often augmented with technology. Inferences are logical interpretations derived from a combination of observation and prior knowledge. Together, they form the basis of all scientific ideas. An example of the interplay of observation and inference is the manner in which we determine the distances to stars. Stars are so far away that only a relatively small fraction of star distances can be measured through direct observation and the application of geometry. For the rest of the stars and other distant celestial objects, a complex combination of observations and inferences must be employed (see Murphy & Bell, 2005 for a more complete description of how astronomers determine distances to stars).
4. Scientific knowledge is the product of creative thinking. Scientists do not solely rely on logic and rationality. In fact, creativity is a major source of inspiration and innovation in science. Scientists often use creative methods and procedures throughout investigations, bound only by the limitation that they must be able to justify their approaches to the satisfaction of their peers. Within the limits of peer review, creativity permeates the ways that scientists design their investigations, how they choose appropriate tools and models to gather data, and in how they analyze and interpret their results. Creativity is clearly evident in Darwin's synthesis of the theory of natural selection from a wide variety of data and ideas, including observations from his voyage on the H.M.S. Beagle, his understanding of the geologic principles of Lyell, and even Malthus' theory of populations. Although known as a careful and methodical observer, Darwin’s recognized genius stems from his creative work of synthesizing a powerful scientific explanation from a variety of sources and clues.
5. Scientific laws and theories are different kinds of scientific knowledge. A scientific law is a description of a generalized relationship or pattern, based on many observations. Scientific laws describe what happens in the natural world and are often (but not always) expressed in mathematical terms. Scientific laws are simply descriptive—they provide no explanation for why a phenomenon occurs. For example, under relatively normal conditions, close to room temperature and pressure, Boyle’s law describes the relationship between the pressure and volume of a gas. Boyle’s law states that at constant temperature, the pressure of a gas is inversely proportional to its volume. The law expresses a relationship that describes what happens under specific conditions, but offers no explanation for why it happens. Explanations for why this relationship exists require theory. Scientific theories are well-supported explanations for scientific phenomenon. Theories offer explanations for why a phenomenon occurs. For example, the kinetic molecular theory explains the relationship expressed by Boyle’s law in terms of the inherent motion of the molecular particles that make up gases. Scientific theories and laws are similar in that both require substantial evidence before they are generally accepted by scientists. Additionally, either can change with new evidence. However, since theories and laws constitute two different types of scientific knowledge, one cannot change into the other.
6. Scientists use many methods to develop scientific knowledge. There exists no single “scientific method” used by all scientists. Rather, scientists use a variety of approaches to develop and test ideas and to answer research questions. These include descriptive studies, experimentation, correlation, epidemiological studies, and serendipitous discovery. What many refer to as the “the scientific method” (testing a hypothesis through controlling and manipulating variables) is really a basic description of how experiments are done. As such, it should be seen as an important way, but not the only way, that scientists conduct investigations, as scientists can make meaning of the natural world using a variety of methodologies.
7. Science is a social activity that possesses inherent subjectivity. Science is a human endeavor, and as such, it is open to subjectivity. For example, the scientific questions considered worth pursuing, the observations that count as data, and even the conclusions drawn by scientists are influenced to some extent by subjective factors. Such factors as the existing scientific knowledge, social and cultural contexts, external funding sources, and the researchers’ experiences and expectations can influence how they collect and analyze data and draw conclusions from these data. While subjectivity cannot be totally removed from scientific endeavors, scientists strive to increase objectivity through peer review and other self-checking mechanisms
1. Scientific knowledge is empirically based. “Empirical” refers to knowledge claims based upon observations of the natural world. While some scientific ideas are theoretical and are derived from logic and reasoning, all scientific ideas must ultimately conform to observational or experimental data. Empirical evidence, in the form of quantitative and qualitative data, forms foundation for scientific knowledge.
2. Scientific knowledge is both reliable and tentative. Scientific knowledge should not be viewed as absolute, but tentative and revisionary. For example, many scientific ideas have remained largely unchanged over long periods of time; however, scientific knowledge can change in light of new evidence and new ways of thinking. New scientific ideas are subject to skepticism, especially if they challenge well-established scientific ideas. Once generally accepted by the scientific community, scientific knowledge is durable. Therefore, it is reasonable to have confidence in scientific knowledge while still recognizing that new evidence may result in changes in the future. Related to the tentative nature of science is the idea that regardless of the amount of empirical evidence supporting a scientific idea (even a law), it is impossible to prove that the idea holds for every instance and under every condition. Einstein’s modifications to the well-established Newtonian Laws are a classic case in point. Thus, “Truth” in the absolute sense, lies outside the scope of science (Popper, 1988). Scientific laws do not provide absolutely true generalizations, rather, they hold under very specific conditions (Cartwright, 1983, 1988). Scientific laws are our best attempts to describe patterns and principals observed in the natural world. As human constructs, these laws should not be viewed as infallible. Rather, they provide useful generalizations for describing and predicting behavior under specific circumstances.
3. Scientific knowledge is the product of observation and inference. Scientific knowledge is developed from a combination of both observations and inferences. Observations are made from information gathered with the five senses, often augmented with technology. Inferences are logical interpretations derived from a combination of observation and prior knowledge. Together, they form the basis of all scientific ideas. An example of the interplay of observation and inference is the manner in which we determine the distances to stars. Stars are so far away that only a relatively small fraction of star distances can be measured through direct observation and the application of geometry. For the rest of the stars and other distant celestial objects, a complex combination of observations and inferences must be employed (see Murphy & Bell, 2005 for a more complete description of how astronomers determine distances to stars).
4. Scientific knowledge is the product of creative thinking. Scientists do not solely rely on logic and rationality. In fact, creativity is a major source of inspiration and innovation in science. Scientists often use creative methods and procedures throughout investigations, bound only by the limitation that they must be able to justify their approaches to the satisfaction of their peers. Within the limits of peer review, creativity permeates the ways that scientists design their investigations, how they choose appropriate tools and models to gather data, and in how they analyze and interpret their results. Creativity is clearly evident in Darwin's synthesis of the theory of natural selection from a wide variety of data and ideas, including observations from his voyage on the H.M.S. Beagle, his understanding of the geologic principles of Lyell, and even Malthus' theory of populations. Although known as a careful and methodical observer, Darwin’s recognized genius stems from his creative work of synthesizing a powerful scientific explanation from a variety of sources and clues.
5. Scientific laws and theories are different kinds of scientific knowledge. A scientific law is a description of a generalized relationship or pattern, based on many observations. Scientific laws describe what happens in the natural world and are often (but not always) expressed in mathematical terms. Scientific laws are simply descriptive—they provide no explanation for why a phenomenon occurs. For example, under relatively normal conditions, close to room temperature and pressure, Boyle’s law describes the relationship between the pressure and volume of a gas. Boyle’s law states that at constant temperature, the pressure of a gas is inversely proportional to its volume. The law expresses a relationship that describes what happens under specific conditions, but offers no explanation for why it happens. Explanations for why this relationship exists require theory. Scientific theories are well-supported explanations for scientific phenomenon. Theories offer explanations for why a phenomenon occurs. For example, the kinetic molecular theory explains the relationship expressed by Boyle’s law in terms of the inherent motion of the molecular particles that make up gases. Scientific theories and laws are similar in that both require substantial evidence before they are generally accepted by scientists. Additionally, either can change with new evidence. However, since theories and laws constitute two different types of scientific knowledge, one cannot change into the other.
6. Scientists use many methods to develop scientific knowledge. There exists no single “scientific method” used by all scientists. Rather, scientists use a variety of approaches to develop and test ideas and to answer research questions. These include descriptive studies, experimentation, correlation, epidemiological studies, and serendipitous discovery. What many refer to as the “the scientific method” (testing a hypothesis through controlling and manipulating variables) is really a basic description of how experiments are done. As such, it should be seen as an important way, but not the only way, that scientists conduct investigations, as scientists can make meaning of the natural world using a variety of methodologies.
7. Science is a social activity that possesses inherent subjectivity. Science is a human endeavor, and as such, it is open to subjectivity. For example, the scientific questions considered worth pursuing, the observations that count as data, and even the conclusions drawn by scientists are influenced to some extent by subjective factors. Such factors as the existing scientific knowledge, social and cultural contexts, external funding sources, and the researchers’ experiences and expectations can influence how they collect and analyze data and draw conclusions from these data. While subjectivity cannot be totally removed from scientific endeavors, scientists strive to increase objectivity through peer review and other self-checking mechanisms
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