improve the sustainability of MSW treatment and POTW operations. Research has demonstrated that the non-recyclable waste materials and bio-solids can be converted into useable heat, electricity, or fuel and chemical through a variety of processes, including gasification, pyrolysis, anaerobic digestion, and landfill gas (LFG) in addition to combustion, and wastewater streams have the potential to support algae growth and provide other energy recovery options. However, MSWs are highly heterogonous and their generations can be highly distributed in small municipalities. It is important to examine how individual technologies or combination of technology can be best used to convert specific wastes to a range of products (biorefining) and whether it is more sustainable to process wastes locally (distributed conversion) than centrally. The objective of the present review is to assess and analyze the current state of knowledge in the MSW and MWW treatment and utilization technologies and recommend practical solution options and future research and development needs.