In addition, how behavior is perceived differs from culture to culture. To
criticize a subordinate in private directly is considered appropriate behavior in
individualistic societies such as the United States. However, in Japan, which values
collectivism over individualism, the same leader behavior would be seen as
inconsiderate. Japanese employees lose face if they are criticized directly by a
supervisor. The expectation is that people will receive criticism information from
peers rather than directly from the leader.71 Research into how the contingency
models apply to cross-cultural situations is sparse.