In Model 2, we replace the single IFRS indicator variable with two non-overlapping binary
indictors, one for all EU member states (IFRSEU) and one for the remaining IFRS adoption
countries (IFRSnon-EU). In addition, we introduce separate quarter-year fixed effects for EU
member states, expanding the fixed effects structure to capture flexible time trends across the
three groups (i.e., EU, other IFRS countries, and benchmark countries). In line with prior
evidence, mandatory IFRS adoption is associated with a significant reduction in liquidity, but
only in the EU and not in the remaining IFRS adoption countries. Finding heterogeneous results
and, in particular, that the liquidity effects are limited to the EU already suggests that IFRS
adoption alone is not the primary driver of the observed capital-market effects. But the finding
does not discriminate between the other three explanations. The liquidity effects in the EU could
be explained by stronger legal and regulatory quality in the EU compared to the rest of the IFRS
countries, by other regulatory changes such as those following the FSAP, or by bundling IFRS
adoption with substantive enforcement changes in some EU countries, but not outside the EU