แปลภาษาอังกฤษเป็นไทย ออนไลน์ แปลภาษา แปลข้อความ แปลบทความ แปลเอกสาร แปลประโยคอังกฤษเป็นไทยทั้งประโยค แปลเอกสารภาษาอังกฤษเป็นภาษาไทยทั้งประโยค แปลประโยคอังกฤษเป็นไทย แปลอังกฤษ แปลไทย ฟรี [Translate] English to Thai Translation Translate Translator , ภาษาอังกฤษ มีใช้ในประเทศออสเตรเลีย แคนาดา ไอร์แลนด์ นิวซีแลนด์ สหราชอาณาจักร สหรัฐอเมริกา ไลบีเรีย เบลีซ แอฟริกาใต้ อินเดีย
Shocks and threats to human development
The threats to human development come from many different directions.1
Economic risks
Millions of households live uncertain and insecure lives, facing a constant
threat of shocks to their income and well-being. Lacking private savings,
financial assets and sufficient protection through national policy, these
households are exposed to financial crises and natural disasters. Economic
insecurity can be high in developing countries, where a large proportion of
employment is in the informal economy, lacking coverage from social insurance.
The informal sector accounts for 25−40 percent of annual output
in developing countries in Africa and Asia.2
But economic vulnerability is
not a problem in developing countries only. Due to the slow recovery from
the global economic crisis, many people in rich countries continue to face
tremendous insecurity. In 2014 unemployment is expected to be more than
11 percent in France, around 12.5 percent in Italy and close to 28 percent
in Greece and Spain, with even higher rates among young people—almost
60 percent in Spain.3
Inequality
The 85 richest people in the world have the same wealth as the 3.5 billion
poorest people.4
Between 1990 and 2010 income inequality in developing
countries rose 11 percent.5
Inequality in health and education has been declining
but remains high, particularly in some regions. Sub-Sahara Africa
has the highest inequality in health outcomes, and South Asia has the highest
inequality in education.6
Inequality is a considerable threat to human
development, particularly because it reflects inequality of opportunity.7
And
beyond a certain threshold, it harms growth, poverty reduction and the quality
of social and political engagement.8
High inequality also diminishes a
shared sense of purpose and facilitates rent-seeking by influential groups.9
Rent-seeking, directed towards getting a larger share of the pie rather than
increasing its size, distorts resource allocation and weakens the economy.10
Inequality impedes future human development by reducing investment in
basic services and public goods, lowering the progressivity of the tax system
and raising the prospect of political instability.11 High inequality between
groups is not only unjust but can also affect well-being and threaten political
stability. When specific groups are discriminated against, resources and
power are not distributed based on merit, and talented people are held back.
Such group inequality fuels dissatisfaction and grievances.12
Health risks
Health shocks can be some of the most destabilizing to households and society,
and hunger and malnutrition add to the high risks of poverty-related
health threats. In India paying for health care has become a major source
of impoverishment for the poor and even the middle class. Ill health of the
main wage earner can push households into poverty and keep them there.13
Recent data suggest that more than 40 percent of hospital patients either
borrow money or sell assets and that close to 35 percent fall into poverty
because of having to pay for their care.14 And making the lives of everyone
vulnerable, not just the poor, are the HIV/AIDS epidemic, the accelerating
spread of malaria and tuberculosis, the rapid spreads of dengue and swine
flu, and the increasing threats of bioterrorism.
Environment and natural disasters
Global risks connected to the environment and climate change appear to be
intensifying. Climate change will produce more droughts in arid regions and
more-frequent and more-intense hurricanes, typhoons and other extreme
weather phenomena. It will also lead to rising sea levels, flooding, water
scarcity in key regions, the migration or extinction of plant and animal species,
and the acidification of oceans.15 Other environmental threats arise
from extensive industrialization and rapid urbanization. In every country
there are growing problems of scarce water, poor sanitation, degraded land,
eroded soil, polluted air and threats to biodiversity. Climate change is adding
to the variability in farm incomes and insecurity in livelihoods that depend
on ecosystems.16 For example, pastoral communities in Western Niger have
experienced the effects of prolonged drought combined with overgrazing,
leading to the conversion of open woodland with perennial grasses to a
mosaic of bare ground and unpalatable shrubs.17
Food insecurity
High volatility in the prices and availability of food are of particular concern,
given the large impact on poor people and poor countries. Following the
2008 global economic crisis, food price spikes and recession slowed the
decline in the number of people worldwide suffering from hunger, which
the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations estimated at
842 million people in 2012.18 This serves as powerful commentary on the
inadequacy of global efforts to eliminate hunger and reduce deprivations
more broadly.
Physical insecurity
Conflict and war inflict shocks on society and human security. Greatly threatening
lives and livelihoods are outbreaks of communal violence, attacks by
terrorist groups, fights between street gangs and protests that turn violent.
And criminal and domestic violence adds to personal insecurity. The World
Health Organization estimates that about 4,400 people die every day because
of intentional acts of violence.19 Of the estimated 1.6 million who died
from violence in 2000, almost half were suicides, nearly a third homicides
and a fifth war-related (most of them men). In some conflicts civilians are
targeted and mutilated as a deliberate strategy to demoralize communities
and destroy their social structures. Rape is often an expression of power and
brutality against communities.20
Notes
1. For a comprehensive list and full coverage, see World Economic Forum (2014). 2. World Bank n.d. 3. OECD 2013d,f. 4. Fuentes-Nieva and Galasso 2014. 5. UNDP 2014. 6. HDRO data (see table 3 in Statistical annex). 7. This is
inequality stemming from factors and circumstances beyond the scope of individual responsibility, such as race and socioeconomic background. See Roemer (1993) and Van de Gaer (1993). 8. UNDP 2014. 9. It is arguably also a
result of that behaviour since rent-seeking redistributes resources from those at the bottom to those at the top. 10. Stiglitz 2012b. 11. Pineda and Rodríguez 2006b; Bénabou 2000; Alesina and others 1996. 12. Stewart, Brown
and Mancini 2005. 13. Narayan and Petesch 2007. 14. Raman and Björkman 2000. 15. IPCC 2013. 16. UNDP 2011a, 2012a. 17. Sinclair and Fryxell 1985; Tshimpanga 2011. 18. FAO, IFAD and WFP 2013. 19. Krug and others 2002b.
20. Krug and others 2002