Of course, there are many important aspects of AHR and airway constriction which are not considered by these models. For example, none of the models discussed explicitly take account of bronchial mucosal folding, a potentially important effect (well- reviewed by Kamm [50], plus several more recent efforts [51e53]), or mechanotransduction (i.e. [54,55]), among many possibly important effects. Likewise there are modelling studies with mul- tiscale features which have not been discussed at length here, such as the acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS)-focused model