2.2. Cognitive apprenticeship
Apprenticeship means gaining practical experience via the explanation and demonstration of practice by masters, and observation by
apprentices of specific skills and knowledge. Thus, masters play the role of knowledge carriers, while apprentices play the role of knowledge
acceptors. Brown et al. (1989) further proposed the cognitive apprenticeship theory based on Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development in
1978. Cognitive apprenticeship (CA) focuses on acquiring thinking skills such as cognitive skills and metacognitive skills resulting in sustained
participation in a community (Collins et al., 1989; Hsu, Hwang, & Chang, 2010; Schellens & Valcke, 2005). It provides an opportunity
for beginners or novices to observe how instructors or experts solve complex problems step by step in an authentic context in terms of
cognitive construction. Collins et al. (1989) listed six major steps for applying this model:
(1) Modeling: the experts demonstrate and explain their way of thinking for students to observe and understand;
(2) Coaching: the learners practice the methods, while the experts advise and correct;
(3) Scaffolding: through increasing the complexity of problems and decreasing the level of assistance according to the learners’ progress,
the experts progressively help the learners successively approximate the objective of accomplishing a task independently;
(4) Articulation: the learners are given opportunities to articulate and clarify their own way of thinking;
(5) Reflection: the learners compare their own thoughts with those of experts and peers;
(6) Exploration: the learners manipulate and explore the learned skills or knowledge to promote their true understanding.
Previous studies have indicated that the CA model can particularly strengthen learners’ high-order thinking abilities. For example,
Snyder (2000) developed adult high-order thinking skills with the CA model and found that the CA group learners developed better
problem-solving skills than the text-based group learners. However, previous studies have also indicated that a teacher can hardly take care
2.2. Cognitive apprenticeshipApprenticeship means gaining practical experience via the explanation and demonstration of practice by masters, and observation byapprentices of specific skills and knowledge. Thus, masters play the role of knowledge carriers, while apprentices play the role of knowledgeacceptors. Brown et al. (1989) further proposed the cognitive apprenticeship theory based on Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development in1978. Cognitive apprenticeship (CA) focuses on acquiring thinking skills such as cognitive skills and metacognitive skills resulting in sustainedparticipation in a community (Collins et al., 1989; Hsu, Hwang, & Chang, 2010; Schellens & Valcke, 2005). It provides an opportunityfor beginners or novices to observe how instructors or experts solve complex problems step by step in an authentic context in terms ofcognitive construction. Collins et al. (1989) listed six major steps for applying this model:(1) Modeling: the experts demonstrate and explain their way of thinking for students to observe and understand;(2) Coaching: the learners practice the methods, while the experts advise and correct;(3) Scaffolding: through increasing the complexity of problems and decreasing the level of assistance according to the learners’ progress,the experts progressively help the learners successively approximate the objective of accomplishing a task independently;(4) Articulation: the learners are given opportunities to articulate and clarify their own way of thinking;(5) Reflection: the learners compare their own thoughts with those of experts and peers;(6) Exploration: the learners manipulate and explore the learned skills or knowledge to promote their true understanding.Previous studies have indicated that the CA model can particularly strengthen learners’ high-order thinking abilities. For example,Snyder (2000) developed adult high-order thinking skills with the CA model and found that the CA group learners developed betterproblem-solving skills than the text-based group learners. However, previous studies have also indicated that a teacher can hardly take care
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