Connecting Spiritual and Emotional Intelligence International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 11
Connecting the Spiritual and Emotional Intelligences:
Confirming an Intelligence Criterion
and Assessing the Role of Empathy
A viable model and self-report measure of spiritual intelligence were previously proposed
and supported by King and DeCicco (2009). Despite such advances, evidence is needed
demonstrating significant associations with other intelligences. The current study sought to
test this criterion in relation to emotional intelligence. Among a sample of 420 Canadian
adults, results demonstrated significant associations between spiritual intelligence and two
self-report measures of emotional intelligence. Due to the suggestion by some theorists
that empathy be included in a model of spiritual intelligence, associations with empathy
were also investigated. Results bode well for the inclusion of a spiritual ability set in the
broader framework of human intelligence, and further clarify the ways in which these two
“alternative” intelligences intersect and digress. Key limitations, including the self-report
nature of the current measures, are discussed.
International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 31(1), 2012, pp. 11-20
Human intelligence has long been the subject
of controversy among psychologists and nonpsychologists
alike (Cianciolo & Sternberg,
2004). One of the most frequently debated issues is
that of multiple intelligences; specifically, whether
intelligence is best conceptualized as a single factor
(as measured by IQ) or an interrelated set of multiple
intelligences. Of those who support the latter position,
Howard Gardner (1983) may be the most well-known.
His theory of multiple intelligences posits a variety of
human ability sets, each representing key domains of
human experience, from language to music. Given
Gardner’s (1983) supplementary proposition of criteria
for intelligence (including a set of interrelated mental
abilities as opposed to behavioral tendencies), additional
intelligences have since been suggested (Gardner, 1999).
Some have received greater consideration than others,
particularly those pertaining to the moral, existential,
and spiritual domains of existence.
Although myriad interpretations of spiritual
intelligence have been proposed in the past decade
(e.g., Amram, 2007; Emmons, 2000; Nasel, 2004;
Noble, 2000; Vaughan, 2002; Wolman, 2001; Zohar
& Marshall, 2000), the notion of a spiritual intelligence
has yet to fully satisfy leading intelligence theorists (e.g.,
Gardner, 1999, 2000; Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 2000).
Recently, King and DeCicco (2009) have attempted to
overcome preceding limitations and comply with popular
psychological criteria for intelligence (e.g., Gardner, 1983;
Mayer et al., 2000; Sternberg, 1997), defining spiritual
intelligence as “a set of mental capacities which contribute
to the awareness, integration, and adaptive application
of the nonmaterial and transcendent aspects of one’s
existence” (p. 69). Four core components have been
proposed: (1) the capacity to engage in critical existential
thinking, (2) the capacity to construct meaning and
purpose in all physical and mental experiences, (3) the
capacity to perceive transcendent dimensions of the self,
David B. King
University of British Columbia,
Vancouver, BC, Canada
Constance A. Mara
York University,
Toronto, ON, Canada
Teresa L. DeCicco
Trent University,
Peterborough, ON, Canada
Keywords: intelligence, spiritual intelligence, emotional intelligence,
spirituality, emotion, personal meaning, empathy, self-report
12 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies King, Mara, & DeCicco
of others, and of the physical world (e.g., a transcendent
self, nonmaterialism, holism, interconnectedness), and
(4) the capacity to enter expanded or spiritual states of
consciousness at one’s own discretion (King, 2008; King
& DeCicco, 2009). This model relied on definitions of
spirituality as distinct from (but related to) religiosity (e.g.,
King, Speck, & Thomas, 2001; Koenig, McCullough, &
Larson, 2000; Sinnott, 2002), in order to not limit the
construct’s universal application and to delineate it from
preferred ways of behaving. The related development of a
self-report measure, the Spiritual Intelligence Self-Report
Inventory (SISRI-24), has revealed psychometric and
statistical support for this four-factor model across two
large university samples (King, 2008; King & DeCicco,
2009). Significant inter-subscale correlations have
been confirmed (ranging from .42 to .61), supporting
established criteria for intelligence (Gardner, 1983; Mayer
et al., 2000; Sternberg, 1997). Although preliminary
support for construct and criterion-related validity has also
been obtained (King & DeCicco, 2009), little is known
of the construct’s relationship to other intelligences or
ability sets, such as emotional intelligence.
Howard Gardner (1983) claimed that any
intelligence should be autonomous and independent of
other intelligences. In slight contrast to Gardner, who
also suggested that intelligences should demonstrate
some degree of association, Sternberg (1988) argued
that “an intelligent system has to work together” (p. 78),
suggesting that mental self-management would break
down if ability sets were truly independent. This tends
to be the popular perspective, so that psychometric
investigations of interrelationships should reveal low
to moderate correlations among intelligences (Mayer et
al., 2000). Just as intra-relatedness within ability sets is
a widely maintained criterion (Gardner, 1983; Mayer et
al., 2000; Sternberg, 1997), inter-relatedness between
various intelligences is equally important. As stated by
Mayer et al. (2000), an intelligence should “be related
to pre-existing intelligences, while also showing some
unique variance” (p. 267), reflecting earlier notions of
cognitive ability (e.g., Neisser et al., 1996). This represents
an important condition that must be met in the
validation of a newly proposed intelligence, but has yet
to be confirmed in the case of spiritual intelligence.
Although empirical investigations are lacking,
Zohar and Marshall (2000) have proposed a model of
human intelligence in which spiritual intelligence is
positioned at the top of a hierarchy, representing the
brain’s integrative processes (as involved in meaning
making, values, and moral reasoning). Below spiritual
intelligence are the emotional and social intelligences,
reflecting the brain’s associative processes. At the bottom
of the hierarchy are the rational intelligences (i.e., verbal,
mathematical, spatial, logical) or those that are measured
by the intelligence quotient (IQ). With the additional
consideration of Gardner’s (1983) bodily-kinesthetic
intelligence at the hierarchy’s lowest level, the ensuing
model reflects a holistic approach to human intelligence,
integrating factors on the physical, mental, emotional,
and spiritual levels. Although lacking scientific consensus
and investigation, it is one of the only theoretical models
to date that describes the relationship between the
spiritual and emotional intelligences, suggesting that of
all the intelligences, emotional intelligence is the most
closely linked to a spiritual ability set. In order to confirm
the criterion of inter-relatedness among intelligences
in the case of spiritual intelligence, an investigation of
its association with emotional intelligence is a logical
starting point.
Emotional Intelligence
Following Thorndike’s (1920) use of the term social
intelligence to describe one’s ability to relate to other
people, emotional intelligence was conceived by Payne
(1985) as one’s ability to relate creatively to fear, pain,
and desire. The concept was thereafter expanded by
Salovey and Mayer (1990) who formulated a model of
emotional intelligence based on how people appraise,
communicate, and utilize emotions. According to Salovey
and Mayer, emotional intelligence is the capacity to
both understand emotional information and reason
with emotions. It is comprised of four primary abilities:
(1) the capacity to accurately perceive emotions, (2) the
capacity to use emotions to facilitate thinking, (3) the
capacity to understand emotional meanings, and (4) the
capacity to manage emotions. Although their linking
of emotion and intelligence has been heavily criticized,
Mayer and Salovey (1993) argued that many intellectual
problems contain emotional information that must also
be interpreted and processed. Mayer et al. (2000) have
further demonstrated that the Salovey and Mayer (1990)
model of emotional intelligence meets the standard
criteria for intelligence. A similar model was proposed
by Daniel Goleman (1995), who added the capacity to
enter and sustain satisfactory interpersonal relationships.
The measurement of emotional intelligence
varies greatly across studies. Emotional task performance
Connecting Spiritual and Emotional Intelligence International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 13
is often considered the most reliable indicator, as it
measures one’s emotional intelligence during its real-time
manifestation. Emotional perception, for example, is
usually measured using a series of emotional recognition
tasks, in which participants are asked to identify emotions
in a series of faces (Mayer et al., 2000). In contrast, written
self-report questionnaires can be used to determine one’s
perceived emotional intelligence, the score from which
is often referred to as one’s emotional quotient (EQ).
Although some have interpreted the finding that selfreport
measures of EQ are poorly related to performance
tests (Brackett & Mayer, 2003; Goldenberg, Matheson,
& Mantler, 2006) as suggesting a weakness in selfreports,
this remains to be confirmed. Nevertheless, selfreport
measures have proven valuable to researchers in
their affordability and efficiency, as some studies simply
cannot accommodate performance-based testing. Of the
self-report measures devel
Connecting Spiritual and Emotional Intelligence International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 11
Connecting the Spiritual and Emotional Intelligences:
Confirming an Intelligence Criterion
and Assessing the Role of Empathy
A viable model and self-report measure of spiritual intelligence were previously proposed
and supported by King and DeCicco (2009). Despite such advances, evidence is needed
demonstrating significant associations with other intelligences. The current study sought to
test this criterion in relation to emotional intelligence. Among a sample of 420 Canadian
adults, results demonstrated significant associations between spiritual intelligence and two
self-report measures of emotional intelligence. Due to the suggestion by some theorists
that empathy be included in a model of spiritual intelligence, associations with empathy
were also investigated. Results bode well for the inclusion of a spiritual ability set in the
broader framework of human intelligence, and further clarify the ways in which these two
“alternative” intelligences intersect and digress. Key limitations, including the self-report
nature of the current measures, are discussed.
International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 31(1), 2012, pp. 11-20
Human intelligence has long been the subject
of controversy among psychologists and nonpsychologists
alike (Cianciolo & Sternberg,
2004). One of the most frequently debated issues is
that of multiple intelligences; specifically, whether
intelligence is best conceptualized as a single factor
(as measured by IQ) or an interrelated set of multiple
intelligences. Of those who support the latter position,
Howard Gardner (1983) may be the most well-known.
His theory of multiple intelligences posits a variety of
human ability sets, each representing key domains of
human experience, from language to music. Given
Gardner’s (1983) supplementary proposition of criteria
for intelligence (including a set of interrelated mental
abilities as opposed to behavioral tendencies), additional
intelligences have since been suggested (Gardner, 1999).
Some have received greater consideration than others,
particularly those pertaining to the moral, existential,
and spiritual domains of existence.
Although myriad interpretations of spiritual
intelligence have been proposed in the past decade
(e.g., Amram, 2007; Emmons, 2000; Nasel, 2004;
Noble, 2000; Vaughan, 2002; Wolman, 2001; Zohar
& Marshall, 2000), the notion of a spiritual intelligence
has yet to fully satisfy leading intelligence theorists (e.g.,
Gardner, 1999, 2000; Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 2000).
Recently, King and DeCicco (2009) have attempted to
overcome preceding limitations and comply with popular
psychological criteria for intelligence (e.g., Gardner, 1983;
Mayer et al., 2000; Sternberg, 1997), defining spiritual
intelligence as “a set of mental capacities which contribute
to the awareness, integration, and adaptive application
of the nonmaterial and transcendent aspects of one’s
existence” (p. 69). Four core components have been
proposed: (1) the capacity to engage in critical existential
thinking, (2) the capacity to construct meaning and
purpose in all physical and mental experiences, (3) the
capacity to perceive transcendent dimensions of the self,
David B. King
University of British Columbia,
Vancouver, BC, Canada
Constance A. Mara
York University,
Toronto, ON, Canada
Teresa L. DeCicco
Trent University,
Peterborough, ON, Canada
Keywords: intelligence, spiritual intelligence, emotional intelligence,
spirituality, emotion, personal meaning, empathy, self-report
12 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies King, Mara, & DeCicco
of others, and of the physical world (e.g., a transcendent
self, nonmaterialism, holism, interconnectedness), and
(4) the capacity to enter expanded or spiritual states of
consciousness at one’s own discretion (King, 2008; King
& DeCicco, 2009). This model relied on definitions of
spirituality as distinct from (but related to) religiosity (e.g.,
King, Speck, & Thomas, 2001; Koenig, McCullough, &
Larson, 2000; Sinnott, 2002), in order to not limit the
construct’s universal application and to delineate it from
preferred ways of behaving. The related development of a
self-report measure, the Spiritual Intelligence Self-Report
Inventory (SISRI-24), has revealed psychometric and
statistical support for this four-factor model across two
large university samples (King, 2008; King & DeCicco,
2009). Significant inter-subscale correlations have
been confirmed (ranging from .42 to .61), supporting
established criteria for intelligence (Gardner, 1983; Mayer
et al., 2000; Sternberg, 1997). Although preliminary
support for construct and criterion-related validity has also
been obtained (King & DeCicco, 2009), little is known
of the construct’s relationship to other intelligences or
ability sets, such as emotional intelligence.
Howard Gardner (1983) claimed that any
intelligence should be autonomous and independent of
other intelligences. In slight contrast to Gardner, who
also suggested that intelligences should demonstrate
some degree of association, Sternberg (1988) argued
that “an intelligent system has to work together” (p. 78),
suggesting that mental self-management would break
down if ability sets were truly independent. This tends
to be the popular perspective, so that psychometric
investigations of interrelationships should reveal low
to moderate correlations among intelligences (Mayer et
al., 2000). Just as intra-relatedness within ability sets is
a widely maintained criterion (Gardner, 1983; Mayer et
al., 2000; Sternberg, 1997), inter-relatedness between
various intelligences is equally important. As stated by
Mayer et al. (2000), an intelligence should “be related
to pre-existing intelligences, while also showing some
unique variance” (p. 267), reflecting earlier notions of
cognitive ability (e.g., Neisser et al., 1996). This represents
an important condition that must be met in the
validation of a newly proposed intelligence, but has yet
to be confirmed in the case of spiritual intelligence.
Although empirical investigations are lacking,
Zohar and Marshall (2000) have proposed a model of
human intelligence in which spiritual intelligence is
positioned at the top of a hierarchy, representing the
brain’s integrative processes (as involved in meaning
making, values, and moral reasoning). Below spiritual
intelligence are the emotional and social intelligences,
reflecting the brain’s associative processes. At the bottom
of the hierarchy are the rational intelligences (i.e., verbal,
mathematical, spatial, logical) or those that are measured
by the intelligence quotient (IQ). With the additional
consideration of Gardner’s (1983) bodily-kinesthetic
intelligence at the hierarchy’s lowest level, the ensuing
model reflects a holistic approach to human intelligence,
integrating factors on the physical, mental, emotional,
and spiritual levels. Although lacking scientific consensus
and investigation, it is one of the only theoretical models
to date that describes the relationship between the
spiritual and emotional intelligences, suggesting that of
all the intelligences, emotional intelligence is the most
closely linked to a spiritual ability set. In order to confirm
the criterion of inter-relatedness among intelligences
in the case of spiritual intelligence, an investigation of
its association with emotional intelligence is a logical
starting point.
Emotional Intelligence
Following Thorndike’s (1920) use of the term social
intelligence to describe one’s ability to relate to other
people, emotional intelligence was conceived by Payne
(1985) as one’s ability to relate creatively to fear, pain,
and desire. The concept was thereafter expanded by
Salovey and Mayer (1990) who formulated a model of
emotional intelligence based on how people appraise,
communicate, and utilize emotions. According to Salovey
and Mayer, emotional intelligence is the capacity to
both understand emotional information and reason
with emotions. It is comprised of four primary abilities:
(1) the capacity to accurately perceive emotions, (2) the
capacity to use emotions to facilitate thinking, (3) the
capacity to understand emotional meanings, and (4) the
capacity to manage emotions. Although their linking
of emotion and intelligence has been heavily criticized,
Mayer and Salovey (1993) argued that many intellectual
problems contain emotional information that must also
be interpreted and processed. Mayer et al. (2000) have
further demonstrated that the Salovey and Mayer (1990)
model of emotional intelligence meets the standard
criteria for intelligence. A similar model was proposed
by Daniel Goleman (1995), who added the capacity to
enter and sustain satisfactory interpersonal relationships.
The measurement of emotional intelligence
varies greatly across studies. Emotional task performance
Connecting Spiritual and Emotional Intelligence International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 13
is often considered the most reliable indicator, as it
measures one’s emotional intelligence during its real-time
manifestation. Emotional perception, for example, is
usually measured using a series of emotional recognition
tasks, in which participants are asked to identify emotions
in a series of faces (Mayer et al., 2000). In contrast, written
self-report questionnaires can be used to determine one’s
perceived emotional intelligence, the score from which
is often referred to as one’s emotional quotient (EQ).
Although some have interpreted the finding that selfreport
measures of EQ are poorly related to performance
tests (Brackett & Mayer, 2003; Goldenberg, Matheson,
& Mantler, 2006) as suggesting a weakness in selfreports,
this remains to be confirmed. Nevertheless, selfreport
measures have proven valuable to researchers in
their affordability and efficiency, as some studies simply
cannot accommodate performance-based testing. Of the
self-report measures devel
การแปล กรุณารอสักครู่..