The high fixed costs involved in beer production led to national oligopolies controlled by local competitors in most countries.
In Korea, for example, the top three players controlled 99 percent of the beer market; The Australia and the Philippines (96 percent), and in the United States (80 percent).
High consolidation led to high economies of scale and higher levels of profitability, which, with new exceptions, was positively correlated with national consolidation levels.
China was not typical in this regard, however, In 1999, the top three competitors controlled only 9 percent of the market, with around 500 brewers and 1500 beer brands eagerly competing for a share of the pie in 2001.