Disadvantages: In migratory birds, exposure to contaminants throughout the course of a year is determined by their migration patterns which can extend across entire hemispheres as the birds migrate between breeding and wintering grounds. Dietary composition may vary within the breeding range of individual species of birds [25-27] and since prey may be differentially contaminated depending, for example, on trophic level, dietary choices may contribute to spatial variation of contaminant levels found in the birds [27]. So migratory habits can render birds much less suitable as biomonitors because individuals may differ in their migrations to an uncertain extent and make it difficult to determine the spatial scale they represent. A similar problem of buffering may be evident at behavioral and physiological levels of buffering may render birds less satisfactory as biomonitors than lower animals. For example, birds are able to regulate tissue concentrations of many metals, and body reserves of fat, to a much greater extent than invertebrates can, and so birds may less readily reflect environmental stresses.
Besides these, the differences existing in water birds, such as sex, age, tissues and species, make it difficult to establish a consistent standard for environment evaluation. Burger (2007) reviewed 43 studies of metals in vertebrates, found that females had higher levels in 30 cases where there were significant differences (and males were higher in only 14 cases) [28]. Nonetheless, females often have higher levels, suggesting that the mechanism of excretion into eggs and eggshells is not as effective as once assumed, or that uptake is greater [28]. Wemel et al. found that some heavy metals in soft tissues and feathers of Kittiwake nestlings were low in hatchlings and increased with age of the nestlings [22].
Measuring heavy metal concentrations in birds is useful, however, in many cases it may not be sufficient because stress caused by exposure to heavy metals can be both direct and indirect (e.g. decreased amount of food).
Disadvantages: In migratory birds, exposure to contaminants throughout the course of a year is determined by their migration patterns which can extend across entire hemispheres as the birds migrate between breeding and wintering grounds. Dietary composition may vary within the breeding range of individual species of birds [25-27] and since prey may be differentially contaminated depending, for example, on trophic level, dietary choices may contribute to spatial variation of contaminant levels found in the birds [27]. So migratory habits can render birds much less suitable as biomonitors because individuals may differ in their migrations to an uncertain extent and make it difficult to determine the spatial scale they represent. A similar problem of buffering may be evident at behavioral and physiological levels of buffering may render birds less satisfactory as biomonitors than lower animals. For example, birds are able to regulate tissue concentrations of many metals, and body reserves of fat, to a much greater extent than invertebrates can, and so birds may less readily reflect environmental stresses.
Besides these, the differences existing in water birds, such as sex, age, tissues and species, make it difficult to establish a consistent standard for environment evaluation. Burger (2007) reviewed 43 studies of metals in vertebrates, found that females had higher levels in 30 cases where there were significant differences (and males were higher in only 14 cases) [28]. Nonetheless, females often have higher levels, suggesting that the mechanism of excretion into eggs and eggshells is not as effective as once assumed, or that uptake is greater [28]. Wemel et al. found that some heavy metals in soft tissues and feathers of Kittiwake nestlings were low in hatchlings and increased with age of the nestlings [22].
Measuring heavy metal concentrations in birds is useful, however, in many cases it may not be sufficient because stress caused by exposure to heavy metals can be both direct and indirect (e.g. decreased amount of food).
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