•At the end of the sixteenth century certain clear trends on the mainland can already be seen. Notwithstanding periods of fragmentation, the basis for future consolidation in Siam, Burma and Vietnam had been laid down, and these states had already signaled their potential for domination over the Lao and Khmer.
•In the island world, however, such trends are not nearly so apparent. In the Straits of Melaka, Johor, Aceh and Portuguese controlled Melaka remained at odds; Java was divided; Brunei was regarded as a leader in the Borneo region; and Balinese forces were sufficiently strong to expand into the neighbouringislands of Lombok and Sumbawa, where they were to clash with the growing strength of Makassar.