markedly different values. Thus, whatever else reorganization does, it rearranges the values of the new organization.
In a traditional, stable bureaucracy where lines of authority are clear and change seldom occurs, high-level managers make decisions and are held accountable to their superiors within the hierarchy or in the legislative branch, as appropriate. Administrative discretion is used only at relatively high levels inside the organization. Lower level employees are expected to perform their duties in accordance with directions from their superiors, in effect shifting
accountability to the organization's upper echelon. These organizations
are staid and often resistant to change, but they are fairly predictable and can be evaluated in accordance with a series of rules set forth ahead of time. Effective leaders know the rules, follow them, and occasionally adapt them to
changing needs and circumstances.
By contrast, a more decentralized organization that subscribes to the
new OD theory is more fluid and far less hierarchical than a traditional bureaucracy. Accordingly, the behavior of these organizations is dictated by events that occur in the marketplace or by external actions that affect the organization's context. Effective leaders are risk takers who value intuitive knowledge, flexibility,and adaptive skills. Teams and creative problem-solving are
important ; administrative discretion is exercised by virtually every employee at every level. Accountability is a question of function, not a person's title or placement within the hierarchy.
The accountability expectations and values embraced by the two types of
organizations are markedly different. Obviously, both a traditional organization and a modern, fluid organization seek an organizational structure that avoids egregious cases of maladministration resulting from fraud and corruption. More commonly, both types of organizations also can be subject to what Van Wart and Denhardt refer to as "maladministration... Due to organizational dysfunction."Organizational dysfunction occurs when an organization is structured in a manner that makes it difficult, if not impossible, to achieve its goals. Sometimes this happens when rigid conformity to the rules displaces the underlying goals of the organization so that an agency slavishly upholds the letter of the law or policy without adequately considering its spirit or intent. In other instances, an agency adheres to a"command and control"mentality that emphasizes the power of the organization and its officers with little or no regard for an appropriate course of action to achieve the desired ends.