First, we utilize the Gompers, Ishii, and Metric (2003) index (GIM index) as a measure of managerial entrenchment. The GIM index is a cumulative index of 24 antitakeover governance provisions obtained from the Investor Responsibility Research Center (IRRC) volumes published periodically between 1990 and 2006. Firms that have a high value of the GIM index are thought to have more entrenched management. IRRC covers firms in the S&P 1500 and other major U.S. corporations, a subset of our initial sample. For instance, in 1990, 709 firms have a GIM index while our full sample has 4,042 firms. Following Gompers, Ishii, and Metrick, we assume that a firm's governance provisions remain in place from the publication year of an IRRC volume until the publication year of the next volume. We then sort firm-year observations with corresponding IRRC data into quintiles formed on values of the GIM index