Human resource practices have been linked to organizational performance. However, it is not clear whether these practices are primarily symbolic in anture. For example, the outcomes of many HRD processes are seldom formally evaluated as a result of problems related to measurement and evaluation. Previous research has primarily utilised cross-sectional designs, and causal relationships have not been satisfatorily illminated. It is unclear whether HRM/HRD practices contribute to organizational outcomes or whether organizational success leads to increased investments in strengthening HRM/HRD practices.