examination. In recent years, nurse-education is transferred from the vocational school to the university. Nurse education in the university takes 4-years. Graduation of the university nurse education course gives the eligibility requirements for the national nurse qualifying examination, not only for the nurse, but also for the public health nurse. Eligibility requirements for the national nurse qualifying examination for the midwife are given by finishing the university nurse education course with additional education courses for midwives. A nurse profession association issues the certificates of specialties of nursing in some areas; emergency nursing, cancer chemotherapy nursing, and so on. These may be seen as the same as clinical nurse specialists in other countries.
Fourthly, freedom of choice to utilize any medical institution is guaranteed by laws for all enrollees in the public health insurances. By this, patients by their decision can select a clinic or an outpatient department of hospitals. The free access is assured but it might cause inefficiency in the functioning of clinics and hospitals differentiated. Hospitals with high clinical functioning charge patients for extra fees in addition to the price based on the tariffs for medical care services. This charge is legally permitted. The amount of the surcharge varies from hospital to hospital.
Fifth, the tariffs for medical care services are determined in the Central Social Insurance Medical Council. The Council consists of the representatives of clinical physicians and hospitals, of insurers in public health insurances, and of public interest. Once in two years, the Council determines and updates the tariffs for medical care services as publicly regulated prices. The updates were made by evidences using the results of the Survey for the Financial Situation of the Clinics and Hospitals, and the results of the Survey for the Medical Care Utilization. The update is also the result of the political negotiation, and it is a political inducement tool. When the committee recognizes that there is need for expanding the utilization of some services, but that the low profitability inhibits the provision of the service, then the committee determines to increase its price to induce more medical institutions to provide it. The Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare decides coverage and tariffs of the medical services, based on suggestion from the council.
Lastly, the medical institution must be non-profit. The notion “non-profit” means that financial surplus from running the medical institution cannot be shared to capital subscriber and/or investor. Financial surplus, if any, must be used for investment to the medical equipment, facilities, etc. or reserved as internal reserves. Exceptionally, private companies own the medical institutions, in order to promote employees’ health. In these cases, the management of those medical institutions must obey a non-profit principle.
4.3.4 Current Issues in Healthcare service provision system
4.3.4.1 The lack of physicians
Aging implies that the number of elderly is increasing, who will need not only care for chronic diseases, but also acute care. Since the 1970s, at least one university with a department of medicine was established in each prefecture. It is thought in those days that this policy would satisfy the future need for physician services. However, the increase in medical doctors may not have caught up to the growing need due to rapid aging. As we have seen in section 4.3.2, the total number of medical doctors working in