History, politics, and the broader social context have come together to produce a range of civil society "ecosystems in which different associational forms are layered one on top of the other. In their details these ecosystems vary across countries, but in nearly all cases they are fragile and incomplete. In most Arab countries and lran, Csos to professional syndi- political restrictions limit larger, membership-based cates, sports clubs, and development or community-based associations that seek to rion, and supplement inadequate government services. Except in Morocco Turkey, trade unions have been largely controlled by the state. but even in these countries some unions are close to the state or to political parties. There are no unions at all in Saudi Arabia. in Tunisia, unions partly escaped, state control: in Egypt, fledgling, independent unions re-emerged in 20og. In both countries orga- nized labor played a role in the 2010-11 Arab Spring protests. organizations and chambers of com In the Arab states and Iran, employers' merce also frequently lack independence. Religious organizations with a political