Characterization of materials in the solid state, often loosely referred to as
materials characterization, can be a vast and diverse field encompassing
many techniques [1–3]. In the last few decades, revolutionary changes in
electronic instrumentation have increased the use of highly e¤ective automated
instruments for obtaining analytical information on the composition,
chemistry, surface, and internal structures of solids at micrometer and
nanometer scales. These techniques are based on various underlying principles
and cannot be put under one discipline or umbrella. Therefore, it is
important first to define the scope of techniques that can be covered in one
chapter.
In this chapter we are concerned with the two common categories
of materials characterization: microscopy and spectroscopy. Microscopy
implies obtaining magnified images to study the morphology, structure,
and shape of various features, including grains, phases, embedded phases,
embedded particles, and so on. Spectroscopy implies investigation of chemical
composition and chemistry of the solid. Within spectroscopy, bulk techniques
such as infrared, Raman, and Rutherford backscattering require
minimal sample preparation and are not touched upon. Emphasis is placed
on the spectroscopy of the outer atomic layers where sample preparation
and handling become important.