2. Current theoretical foundation for problem-based learning
Pedagogically, problem-based learning is founded in the Constructivist approach to education (DeFillipi & Milter, 2009),
primarily associated with John Dewey (Duffy & Cunningham, 1996) and Richard Rorty (Savery & Duffy, 1995). The
Constructivist approach to education is founded on the notion that learners actively construction their own knowledge (Duffy
& Cunningham, 1996; DeFillipi & Milter, 2009; Gijselaers, 1996; Savery & Duffy, 1995). Learning is an active process of
constructing knowledge and, therefore, instruction should be structured in such a way as to support this construction of
knowledge (Duffy & Cunningham, 1996). Direct delivery of knowledge and information through the traditional lecture-based
process is deemed to be less effective at promoting knowledge development and learning than is self-directed creation of
knowledge. The basic premise in a Constructivist approach to learning is that learning is a process of constructing new
knowledge based on previously learned, existing knowledge (DeFillipi & Milter, 2009; Gijselaers, 1996). Learning progresses
once an instructor is able to activate existing knowledge in the learner and motivate the creation of new knowledge based on
the activated existing knowledge. This is the function of the ill-structured, real-world problem in problem-based learning; to
activate existing knowledge and motivate the construction of new knowledge.
In terms of learning outcomes, Dewey's Constructivist pedagogical theory (Dewey, 1938) suggests that problem-based
learning should lead to more learning, both in terms of content learned and thinking strategies developed, than a traditional
lecture-based curriculum.
More specifically, John Dewey theorized that learning occurs in the activity of the learner not the activity of the instructor
(Duffy & Cunningham, 1996; Kirkpatrick, 2008). In order for learning to take place at all, the learner must be actively engaged
in the process of seeking an understanding of something. John Dewey also argued that knowledge situated in the real world
should not be the desired outcome of learning but rather the context for learning (Duffy & Cunningham, 1996; Kirkpatrick,
2008). In order for learning to take hold, interest in the learner has to be aroused and organizing the learning around a realworld
problem to be solved can best do this.
Like John Dewey, Richard Rorty proposes that learning occurs though the learner's interactions with his or her environment
(Savery & Duffy, 1995). What is to be and has been learned cannot be separated from how that will be or was learned.
Rorty proposes that it is the cognitive effect of conflict or puzzlement that motivates the learning and determines how what is
learned is organized (Savery & Duffy, 1995). The cognitive conflict of not knowing motivates learning. Finally, Rorty suggestions
that it is through social interaction that knowledge evolves (Savery & Duffy, 1995). Social interaction leads to
negotiation and evaluation of knowledge, making the knowledge viable.
According to Rorty this leads to eight implications for learning (Savery & Duffy, 1995):
1. all learning activities must be anchored within a larger task or problem;
2. the learner must take ownership of the overall task or problem;
3. the task or problem must be a real-world, authentic task or problem;
4. the real-world, authentic task or problem must represent those the learner will find him or herself after the learning is
complete;
5. the learner should be solely responsible for developing the process of finding a solution to the task or problem;
6. the learning environment provided by the instructor must support and challenge the learner's thinking;
7. the learner should be encouraged to test his or her knowledge against alternative views and contexts;
8. and, the learner should be encouraged to reflect on his or her learning and learning process.
This is supported by current thinking about adult learning. For example, Knowles, Holton, and Swanson (1998) identify six
core adult learning principles: the adult learner's need to know, the self-concept of the adult learner, prior experience of the
adult learner, readiness to learn, orientation to learning, and motivation to learn.
The proposition made by Constructivist theory that problem-based learning would lead to more learning, both in terms of
content learned and thinking strategies developed, is supported by a prior knowledge perspective: current learning is affected
by prior learning and ill-structured, real-world problems activate prior knowledge (Albanese & Mitchell, 1993). Similarly the
proposition is supported by an encoding specificity perspective: the closer the resemblance between the learning context and
the applied context the more learning will be applied (Albanese & Mitchell, 1993). Finally, the proposition is supported by an
elaboration of knowledge perspective: the more elaborated the knowledge the better remembered and applied the learning
(Albanese & Mitchell, 1993).
3. Empirical evidence supporting the current theoretical foundation
The evidence for problem-based learning consists of three meta-analytic efforts conducted through the mid-90s to mid-
00s concerning the effectiveness of problem-based learning, mostly in medical school settings, and a few independent
research efforts implemented since then, primarily in engineering settings, with a very few in management settings. However,
there is little across this research that supports the current theoretical foundation for problem-based learning.
Albanese and Mitchell (1993) conducted the first meta-analytic study comparing problem-based learning with more
traditional lecture-based learning across a variety of studies conducted in medical schools from 1972 through 1993. The
M.S. Carriger / The International Journal of Management Education 13 (2015) 249e259 251
authors acknowledge that despite the growth of interest in problem-based learning in medical education, there was, at that
time, little evidence to support problem-based learning and some confusion about exactly what problem-based learning was.
In order to identify studies that looked at the effectiveness of problem-based learning Albanese and Mitchell (1993) used
Barrows' (1985) definition of problem-based learning … “the basic outline of the problem-based learning process is:
encountering the problem first, problem solving with clinical reasoning skills and identifying learning needs in an interactive
process, self-study, applying newly gained knowledge to the problem, and summarizing what has been learned” (Barrows,
1985, p. 15).
The authors further defined, for the sake of their meta-analysis, conventional instruction as “instructor-provided learning
objectives and assignments, large-group lectures, structured laboratory experiences, and periodic multiple-choice tests of
achievement” (Albanese & Mitchell, 1993, p. 54).
With regards to knowledge acquisition, for six of the 10 studies that compared basic science examination performance,
traditional, lecture-based instruction produced higher test scores, and in three of these cases statistically significant higher
test scores. With regards to clinical problem-solving skills, in five of the seven studies that compared clinical examination
performance, problem-based instruction produced higher, though in only one case statistically significant higher examination
scores. For this meta-analytic survey, lecture-based instruction led to more general knowledge acquisition, while problembased
learning led to more problem-solving skill.
Additionally, with regards to student satisfaction, seven of seven studies looking at student satisfaction ratings for
problem-based learning showed average or higher than the mid-point scores on each rating scale. However, this result should
be interpreted cautiously as there was no comparison in any of the studies with traditional, lecture-based instruction. Finally,
the authors (Albanese & Mitchell, 1993) noted that in all studies that looked at students' perceptions of their preparation to do
clinical work problem-based students did not view themselves as being disadvantaged having learned through problembased
instruction, nor where problem-based students rated by their supervisors as being disadvantaged in their actual
clinical work. In general, these medical students rated themselves as highly satisfied with their experience, and did not feel
disadvantaged for doing future clinical work.
In general, these studies (Albanese & Mitchell, 1993) reveal a mixed bag with regards to problem-based learning. Problembased
learning improved problem-solving skills over traditional, lecture-based instruction; however, it did not improve and
actually decreases knowledge acquisition. At the same time, students in problem-based classrooms rated the course highly,
and did not feel disadvantaged for having gone through problem-based instruction.
Concurrently, though independently, Vernon and Blake (1993) conducted the second meta-analytic study comparing
problem-based learning with more traditional lecture-based learning across a variety of studies conducted in medical schools
from 1970 through 1992. Vernon and Blake (1993) defined problem-based learning as “a method of learning (or teaching) that
emphasized (1) the study of clinical cases, either real or hypothetical, (2) small discussion groups, (3) collaborative independent
study, (4) hypothetico-deductive reasoning, and (5) a style of faculty direction that concentrated on group processes
rather than imparting information” (pp. 550e551).
Eight published reports assessed, with a total of twenty-eight samples, contained data about students' academic
achievement as measured by standardized tests (Vernon & Blake, 1993). Overall, effect sizes for academic achievement
showed a significant trend in favor of lecture-based instruction. Twelve of the published reports assessed, with a
2. ปัจจุบันมูลนิธิทฤษฎีเรียนรู้ปัญหาPedagogically เรียนรู้ปัญหาการก่อตั้งขึ้นในวิธีการแบบสร้างสรรค์นิยมการศึกษา (DeFillipi & Milter, 2009),ส่วนใหญ่เกี่ยวข้องกับจอห์น Dewey (ดัฟฟีและคันนิงแฮม 1996) และริชาร์ด Rorty (Savery & ดัฟฟี 1995) ที่ก่อตั้งขึ้นบนแนวคิดแบบสร้างสรรค์นิยมวิธีการศึกษาที่ผู้เรียนกำลังก่อสร้างความรู้ของตนเอง (ดัฟฟีและคันนิงแฮม 1996 DeFillipi & Milter, 2009 Gijselaers, 1996 Savery & ดัฟฟี 1995) เรียนรู้เป็นกระบวนการใช้งานอยู่สร้างความรู้และ ดังนั้น คำแนะนำควรจัดโครงสร้างในลักษณะเป็นสนับสนุนการก่อสร้างนี้ความรู้ (ดัฟฟีและคันนิงแฮม 1996) ใบความรู้และข้อมูลผ่านแบบดั้งเดิมที่ใช้บรรยายกระบวนการจะถือว่ามีผลน้อยกว่าการสร้างด้วยตนเองในการเรียนรู้ ที่ส่งเสริมพัฒนาความรู้ความรู้ พื้นฐานภายในวิธีแบบสร้างสรรค์นิยมการเรียนรู้คือเรียนรู้ กระบวนการของการสร้างใหม่รู้ตามก่อนหน้านี้ได้เรียนรู้ ความรู้ (DeFillipi & Milter, 2009 ที่มีอยู่ Gijselaers, 1996) เรียนรู้ดำเนินไปเมื่อผู้สอนสามารถเรียกใช้ความรู้ที่มีอยู่ในผู้เรียน และจูงใจการสร้างความรู้ใหม่ตามความรู้ที่มีอยู่เปิดใช้งาน นี่คือการทำงานของโครง สร้างร้าย จริงปัญหาปัญหาเรียนรู้ ถึงเรียกใช้ความรู้ที่มีอยู่ และการจูงใจการสร้างความรู้ใหม่ในแง่ของผลการเรียนรู้ ของ Dewey ทฤษฎีสอนแบบสร้างสรรค์นิยม (Dewey, 1938) ชี้ให้เห็นว่า ปัญหาตามเรียนรู้ควรนำไปสู่การเรียนรู้เพิ่มเติม ทั้งในแง่ของเนื้อหาที่ได้เรียนรู้ และคิดกลยุทธ์ พัฒนา มากกว่าแบบดั้งเดิมบรรยายตามหลักสูตรอื่น ๆ โดยเฉพาะ Dewey จอห์น theorized ที่ เรียนรู้เกิดขึ้นในกิจกรรมของผู้เรียนกิจกรรมผู้สอนไม่(ดัฟฟีและคันนิงแฮม 1996 Kirkpatrick, 2008) การเรียนรู้ที่จะใช้สถานที่ เรียนต้องจะเน้นในกระบวนการแสวงหาความเข้าใจเกี่ยวกับบางสิ่งบางอย่าง Dewey จอห์นยังโต้เถียงความรู้ที่อยู่ในโลกจริงไม่ควรระบุผลของการเรียนรู้แต่เป็นบริบทในการเรียนรู้ (ดัฟฟีและคันนิงแฮม 1996 Kirkpatrick2008) . การเรียนรู้การหยิบ สนใจในการเรียนมีให้ aroused และจัดการเรียนรู้รอบ realworldปัญหามีไว้แก้ส่วนสามารถทำเช่นนี้เช่นจอห์น Dewey, Rorty ริชาร์ดเสนอว่า การเรียนรู้เกิดขึ้นแม้ว่าโต้ตอบของผู้เรียนกับสภาพแวดล้อมของเขา หรือเธอ(Savery & ดัฟฟี 1995) ไม่สามารถแยกสิ่งถูกต้อง และได้เรียนรู้ จากวิธีที่จะได้เรียนรู้ได้Rorty เสนอว่า จะรับรู้ผลของความขัดแย้งหรือ puzzlement ที่แรงบันดาลใจการเรียนรู้ และกำหนดว่าอะไรเป็นเรียนรู้ได้จัด (Savery & ดัฟฟี 1995) ความขัดแย้งที่รับรู้ของไม่ทราบว่าแรงบันดาลใจการเรียนรู้ สุดท้าย Rorty คำแนะนำว่า มันคือสังคมอยู่เสมอ (Savery & ดัฟฟี 1995) สังคมที่นำไปสู่เจรจาต่อรองและประเมินความรู้ ทำให้รู้ได้ตาม Rorty นี้นำไปสู่ผลแปดในการเรียนรู้ (Savery & ดัฟฟี 1995):1. กิจกรรมการเรียนรู้ที่ต้องยึดภายในงานใหญ่หรือปัญหา2.ผู้เรียนต้องเป็นเจ้าของงานโดยรวมหรือปัญหา3.งานหรือปัญหาที่ต้องการจริง งานแท้ หรือ ปัญหา4.งานจริง แท้จริงหรือปัญหาที่ต้องแสดงถึงผู้เรียนจะพบเขาหรือตัวเองหลังจากการเรียนรู้เสร็จสมบูรณ์5. ผู้เรียนควรเป็นผู้รับผิดชอบในการพัฒนากระบวนการในการค้นหาการแก้ไขงานหรือปัญหา6.สภาพแวดล้อมการเรียนรู้โดยผู้สอนต้องสนับสนุน และท้าทายความคิดของผู้เรียน7. ผู้เรียนควรจะสนับสนุนการทดสอบความรู้ของเขา หรือเธอจากมุมมองอื่นและบริบท8. และ ผู้เรียนควรจะสนับสนุนการสะท้อนการเรียนรู้ของ ตนและกระบวนการเรียนรู้สนับสนุน ด้วยการเรียนรู้ผู้ใหญ่ปัจจุบัน ระบุ 6 ตัว โนวส์ Holton และ Swanson (1998)ผู้ใหญ่หลักหลักการเรียนรู้: เรียนผู้ใหญ่จำเป็นต้องรู้ self-concept ของผู้ใหญ่ผู้เรียน ทราบประสบการณ์ของการผู้เรียนผู้ใหญ่ ความพร้อมที่จะเรียนรู้ แนวการเรียนรู้ แรงจูงใจในการเรียนรู้เสนอโดยทฤษฎีแบบสร้างสรรค์นิยมที่เรียนรู้ปัญหาจะนำไปสู่การเพิ่มเติมการเรียนรู้ ทั้งในแง่ของcontent learned and thinking strategies developed, is supported by a prior knowledge perspective: current learning is affectedby prior learning and ill-structured, real-world problems activate prior knowledge (Albanese & Mitchell, 1993). Similarly theproposition is supported by an encoding specificity perspective: the closer the resemblance between the learning context andthe applied context the more learning will be applied (Albanese & Mitchell, 1993). Finally, the proposition is supported by anelaboration of knowledge perspective: the more elaborated the knowledge the better remembered and applied the learning(Albanese & Mitchell, 1993).3. Empirical evidence supporting the current theoretical foundationThe evidence for problem-based learning consists of three meta-analytic efforts conducted through the mid-90s to mid-00s concerning the effectiveness of problem-based learning, mostly in medical school settings, and a few independentresearch efforts implemented since then, primarily in engineering settings, with a very few in management settings. However,there is little across this research that supports the current theoretical foundation for problem-based learning.Albanese and Mitchell (1993) conducted the first meta-analytic study comparing problem-based learning with moretraditional lecture-based learning across a variety of studies conducted in medical schools from 1972 through 1993. TheM.S. Carriger / The International Journal of Management Education 13 (2015) 249e259 251authors acknowledge that despite the growth of interest in problem-based learning in medical education, there was, at thattime, little evidence to support problem-based learning and some confusion about exactly what problem-based learning was.In order to identify studies that looked at the effectiveness of problem-based learning Albanese and Mitchell (1993) usedBarrows' (1985) definition of problem-based learning … “the basic outline of the problem-based learning process is:encountering the problem first, problem solving with clinical reasoning skills and identifying learning needs in an interactiveprocess, self-study, applying newly gained knowledge to the problem, and summarizing what has been learned” (Barrows,1985, p. 15).The authors further defined, for the sake of their meta-analysis, conventional instruction as “instructor-provided learningobjectives and assignments, large-group lectures, structured laboratory experiences, and periodic multiple-choice tests ofachievement” (Albanese & Mitchell, 1993, p. 54).With regards to knowledge acquisition, for six of the 10 studies that compared basic science examination performance,traditional, lecture-based instruction produced higher test scores, and in three of these cases statistically significant highertest scores. With regards to clinical problem-solving skills, in five of the seven studies that compared clinical examinationperformance, problem-based instruction produced higher, though in only one case statistically significant higher examination
scores. For this meta-analytic survey, lecture-based instruction led to more general knowledge acquisition, while problembased
learning led to more problem-solving skill.
Additionally, with regards to student satisfaction, seven of seven studies looking at student satisfaction ratings for
problem-based learning showed average or higher than the mid-point scores on each rating scale. However, this result should
be interpreted cautiously as there was no comparison in any of the studies with traditional, lecture-based instruction. Finally,
the authors (Albanese & Mitchell, 1993) noted that in all studies that looked at students' perceptions of their preparation to do
clinical work problem-based students did not view themselves as being disadvantaged having learned through problembased
instruction, nor where problem-based students rated by their supervisors as being disadvantaged in their actual
clinical work. In general, these medical students rated themselves as highly satisfied with their experience, and did not feel
disadvantaged for doing future clinical work.
In general, these studies (Albanese & Mitchell, 1993) reveal a mixed bag with regards to problem-based learning. Problembased
learning improved problem-solving skills over traditional, lecture-based instruction; however, it did not improve and
actually decreases knowledge acquisition. At the same time, students in problem-based classrooms rated the course highly,
and did not feel disadvantaged for having gone through problem-based instruction.
Concurrently, though independently, Vernon and Blake (1993) conducted the second meta-analytic study comparing
problem-based learning with more traditional lecture-based learning across a variety of studies conducted in medical schools
from 1970 through 1992. Vernon and Blake (1993) defined problem-based learning as “a method of learning (or teaching) that
emphasized (1) the study of clinical cases, either real or hypothetical, (2) small discussion groups, (3) collaborative independent
study, (4) hypothetico-deductive reasoning, and (5) a style of faculty direction that concentrated on group processes
rather than imparting information” (pp. 550e551).
Eight published reports assessed, with a total of twenty-eight samples, contained data about students' academic
achievement as measured by standardized tests (Vernon & Blake, 1993). Overall, effect sizes for academic achievement
showed a significant trend in favor of lecture-based instruction. Twelve of the published reports assessed, with a
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