so that we have a reference
point as to how far our real (i.e., nonideal) reactor is off the norm from an
ideal reactor. The functions E(t) and F(t) will be developed for ideal PPRs,
CSTRs and laminar flow reactors. Examples are given for diagnosing prob-
lems with real reactors by comparing tm and E(t) with ideal reactors. We
will then use these ideal curves to help diagnose and troubleshoot bypassing
and dead volume in real reactors.