The Philosophy of Confucius
Kindheartedness ren 仁. While the former ru had been experts in ritual matters, Confucius transformed the content of their rituals into a social philosophy. For him, a ritual expert could not be but a person of a high moral integrity. The two main concepts of him are kindheartedness (ren 仁, also translateable as humanity, kindness or charity) and ritual (li 禮). Kindheartedness is the expression of righteousness (yi 義, also translateable as generosity or philanthropy), and it is the result of unselfishness (gong 公, as opposed to si 私 "selfishness"). The term ren refers to the interaction between two persons (the character is derived from the character of "man" 人 and that of "two" 二). Relations between two interacting persons had become all the more important as status had become less important than abilities. Ren "kind interaction between persons" was therefore by Confucius raised to a status it never had before among the class of the ru "ritual specialists". It almost seems as if Confucius was the inventor of this term that only rarely appears in pre-Confucian times. In contemporary writings like the histories Guoyu 國語 and Zuozhuan 左傳, ren means "to have affections towards someone else" or "kind behaviour". For Confucius, ren had many different meanings, depending on the context. To be ren was, to be a human (ren zhe, ren ye 人者,人也。). It meant "to have an affection towards others" (ai ren 愛人), whoever it might be. A kindhearted man thus had to overcome the difference between relatives and non-relatives or between persons standing close in a social network and such standing afar. Confucius surpassed the narrow frame of "being related [only] to relatives" (qin qin 親親) and "venerating [only] the venerables" (zun zun 尊尊). Yet this did not mean that Confucius did not lay stress on the respect for parents: filial piety played an important role in his ritual-guided thinking and it was "the root of kindness" (xiaodi zhe, qi wei ren zhi ben 孝弟者其爲仁之本。), but it had to be expanded also to others. Confucius's most famous statement about benevolence is that "what I dislike should not be done to others" (ji suo bu yu, wu shi yu ren 己所不欲,勿施於人。), or, vice versa, to erect or promote (i.e. support) others if one wants to erect or promote oneself (ji yu li er li ren, ji yu da er da ren 己欲立而立人,己欲達而達人。). The own feelings have to be transferred to others (tui ji ji ren 推己及人). Confucius provided a lot of examples how kindheartedness is used. A person being ren does use straight and simple words, without adornment and skilled speech. He "loves the mountains, quietness and longevity", i.e. something immoveable, reliable and constant. A man displaying kindheartedness is respectful (gong 恭), magnanimous (kuan 寬), truthful (xin 信), diligent (min 敏) and gracious (hui 惠). In all his conversations Confucius does not adhere to one single theoretical definition of what ren is, but he provides dozens of examples what kindheartedness can be in pratice. Ren is a practical virtue, used in daily life and easily to apply. Such virtues (de 德) are fully displayed by giving up the self (ke ji 克己), "not seeking one's own life" (wu qiu sheng 無求生), and by "killing one's own body" (sha shen 殺身). It is good to known what ren is, it is yet better to like ren, and the best is to enjoy kindheartedness displayed against others.
The way (dao 道) of the cultivated man is never inclined to one extreme side, but is directed towards the "golden mean" (zhongyong 中庸, zhongxing 中行 "well-balanced behaviour"). Confucius' grandson Zisi 子思 has therefore written the book Zhongyong 中庸 "Doctrine of the Mean".
Parents were to be served during their lifetime and to be venerated after their death. As long as a father is alive, a son has to respect his will, and after his father's death, his way of life has to be taken as an example (fu zai guan qi zhi, fu mo guan qi xing 父在觀其志,父沒觀其行。). Filial piety claimed not only to nourish the parents (something that animals do, too), but also to pay them respect.
The term yi 義 is often translated as "righteousness". Yet it must be understood as the substance of all activities and as the right manner in which something is performed. It is a kind of behaviour "appropriate" (yi 宜) to the actual situation. While kindheartedness is mainly reserved in the private sphere (father and son), appropriate behaviour is applied in the official sphere (lord and minister, husband and wife, younger and older, friend and friend, the "five human relations" wulun 五倫). The appropriate behaviour of the perfect man of virtue (junzi 君子) is often contrasted with selfishness and the search for profit (li 利) by the mean man (xiaoren 小人).
Kindheartedness begins at home with filial piety (xiao 孝) towards the parents (shi qin 事親 "to serve the parents") and love and respect towards older brothers (di 弟, also ti 悌). It is therefore tied to family relationship and by no means equal to the Christian universal love. Affection towards other persons (ai ren 愛人) ranks only in second place. In the official sphere, kindheartedness is expressed in two different ways. The first is loyalty towards superiors (zhong 忠), and the second respect towards others (shu 恕). Loyalty (zhong) towards superiors (shi jun 事君 "to serve one's lord") is important for the functioning of a state, a smaller polity, or even an enterprise in the widest sense. Filial piety is likewise a crucial constituent for a well-functioning society. Without it, social disorder would erupt. Zeng Shen 曾參, a disciple of Confucius, therefore compiled the small book Xiaojing 孝經 "Classic on filial piety". A ruler, faced with the loyalty of his own ministers and the people, had the duty to respond this loyalty with benevolence. The kindhearted ruler grants to the people what it likes (yin min zhi li er li zhi 因民之所利而利之。), lowers taxes and uses the penal law with caution. He leads the people along the right way by force of his own virtue (ren zheng de zhi 仁政德治 "kindhearted government and rule by virtue") and makes it feel treated justly by applying the proper rituals (dao zhi yi de, qi zhi yi li 道之以德,齊之以禮。 "He leads them by means of virtue and makes them equal by means of rites."). The righteous ruler appoints competent and wise talents (ju xiancai 舉賢才) as his advisors. While the ruler responds to the loyalty and respect (jing 敬) of his ministers with kindheartedness (ren), the father answers the filial piety (xiao) of his son by generosity (ci 慈). Comportment and behaviour inside a family are so directly compared with the situation in a state, and each family was seen as a basic cell of the whole empire. If there was benevolence and kindness, filial piety and generosity inside each family, it would also to be found on the level of a state's government. A generous father will incite filial behaviour in his son, and a decent and benevolent ruler will make his ministers most loyal not because they are seeking for profit but because they are convinced to serve their lord with their utmost sincerity. Kindheartedness can move other people and change their inner heart. It has an educating and exemplarious character that is able to move the hearts of a whole people. In order to become an exemplarious personality, constant cultivation of the self is necessary (xiu shen 修身, xiu ji 修己, zheng shen 正身). In the eyes of Confucius everyone is able to become kindhearted, if one only really wants it (wo yu ren, si ren zhi yi 我欲人,斯仁至矣。). The best way to become a kindhearted person is to give up oneself and to go back to the proper rites (ke ji fu li 克己復禮). To find the true form of kindheartedness is very easy because it has to be found in oneself (wei ren you ji 爲仁由己).