Although operating costs in shipping have been decreasing, the total costs of the transport system
have declined less. First, total costs for the carrier have to take into account the costs of investing in new assets. Second, larger ships and the increasing use of hub ports also require ports and port cities to invest in additional capacities for storage, handling and intermodal connections. These additional costs – including external social and environmental costs –
are not born by the carrier, but by the ports and local communities.