Positive Accounting Theory and Social Disclosure Studies
In their 1979 work Watts and Zimmerman mention corporate social disclosures, as a minor
issue. They mention in their 1978 paper (p.115): “… corporations employ a number of
devices, such as corporate social responsibility campaigns in the media, government lobbying
and selection of accounting procedures to minimize reported earnings.”
7
Already in 1981 Trotman and Bradley show some interesting applications of PAT in
combination with social disclosures. One of their main limitations was though, that they only
used PAT’s size hypothesis, without properly explaining why they used only this part. Next to
size form PAT, they tested risk, management’s decision horizon and social pressures. The
latter might be seen as the use of LEGT, but was not clearly acknowledged as such. One of
the important conclusions was that managers involved in CSR have a longer decision horizon.
Milne (2002) has not only criticised Belkaoui and Karpik in using PAT as their theoretical
foundation, but the use of PAT in social disclosure studies in general as well. He discusses the
development of PAT by Watts and Zimmerman (1978, 1979 and 1986) and links this to social
disclosures. Only in their 1978 article Watts and Zimmerman refer to social responsibility.
Social responsibility/disclosure has not been an important issue in the work of Watts and
Zimmerman. In 1978 they assume that individuals, and consequently management act to
maximize their own wealth. Only in some specific cases Watts and Zimmerman’s work can
be linked with CSR, through political costs, with examples from the oil industry. Their
reference to social responsibility disclosures was based upon, 1978, the at that time popular
advocacy advertising. This advertising only fits partially into their argument. It remains
unclear if this lobbying is intended to reduce profits. In their theory though, Watts and
Zimmerman state that, reducing profits is the clear objective of managers and so remove the
source of public and political concern. The social disclosure and lobbying seem unlikely to
aid management reported accounting numbers. Furthermore, advocacy advertisements against
prospective legislation, is probably more successful than annual report social disclosures.
In 2003 a study by Patten and Trompeter has applied clear PAT –related models. These
models ware based upon Cahan, Chavis and Elmendorf (1997). The latter article was again
based upon general earnings management research by Jones (1991), which purely tests the
political cost hypothesis of PAT7. In this rather recent work by Patten and Trompeter employs
PAT, without discussing the fact only some limitations were raised, for example whether PAT
and earnings management were a proper theory to be tested alongside social disclosures.
Patten and Trompeter mention that they only examine accounting-related management
8
choices on social disclosures and earnings management. This might be a weak form of the
conclusion by, for example Gray, Kouhy and Lavers, that [financial] economic choices do not
go well with CSR choices.
A remark needs to be made about the discrepancy that exists in combining social disclosure
behaviour and management’s choices for compulsory financial accounting regulation. That
fact that Watts and Zimmerman (1978) mention social disclosures, which are predominantly
voluntary, should not mean that how management deals with accounting regulation and may
perform earnings management (Patten and Trompeter 2003), can be combined in testing the
size hypothesis.
Positive Accounting Theory and Social Disclosure StudiesIn their 1979 work Watts and Zimmerman mention corporate social disclosures, as a minorissue. They mention in their 1978 paper (p.115): “… corporations employ a number ofdevices, such as corporate social responsibility campaigns in the media, government lobbyingand selection of accounting procedures to minimize reported earnings.”7Already in 1981 Trotman and Bradley show some interesting applications of PAT incombination with social disclosures. One of their main limitations was though, that they onlyused PAT’s size hypothesis, without properly explaining why they used only this part. Next tosize form PAT, they tested risk, management’s decision horizon and social pressures. Thelatter might be seen as the use of LEGT, but was not clearly acknowledged as such. One ofthe important conclusions was that managers involved in CSR have a longer decision horizon.Milne (2002) has not only criticised Belkaoui and Karpik in using PAT as their theoreticalfoundation, but the use of PAT in social disclosure studies in general as well. He discusses thedevelopment of PAT by Watts and Zimmerman (1978, 1979 and 1986) and links this to socialdisclosures. Only in their 1978 article Watts and Zimmerman refer to social responsibility.Social responsibility/disclosure has not been an important issue in the work of Watts andZimmerman. In 1978 they assume that individuals, and consequently management act tomaximize their own wealth. Only in some specific cases Watts and Zimmerman’s work canbe linked with CSR, through political costs, with examples from the oil industry. Theirreference to social responsibility disclosures was based upon, 1978, the at that time popularadvocacy advertising. This advertising only fits partially into their argument. It remainsunclear if this lobbying is intended to reduce profits. In their theory though, Watts andZimmerman state that, reducing profits is the clear objective of managers and so remove thesource of public and political concern. The social disclosure and lobbying seem unlikely toaid management reported accounting numbers. Furthermore, advocacy advertisements againstprospective legislation, is probably more successful than annual report social disclosures.In 2003 a study by Patten and Trompeter has applied clear PAT –related models. Thesemodels ware based upon Cahan, Chavis and Elmendorf (1997). The latter article was againbased upon general earnings management research by Jones (1991), which purely tests thepolitical cost hypothesis of PAT7. In this rather recent work by Patten and Trompeter employsPAT, without discussing the fact only some limitations were raised, for example whether PATand earnings management were a proper theory to be tested alongside social disclosures.Patten and Trompeter mention that they only examine accounting-related management8
choices on social disclosures and earnings management. This might be a weak form of the
conclusion by, for example Gray, Kouhy and Lavers, that [financial] economic choices do not
go well with CSR choices.
A remark needs to be made about the discrepancy that exists in combining social disclosure
behaviour and management’s choices for compulsory financial accounting regulation. That
fact that Watts and Zimmerman (1978) mention social disclosures, which are predominantly
voluntary, should not mean that how management deals with accounting regulation and may
perform earnings management (Patten and Trompeter 2003), can be combined in testing the
size hypothesis.
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