Nowadays, it is a global trend to develop EVs e starting
from hybrid EVs to plug-in EVs and ultimately to pure EVs e
which use state-of-the-art lithium-ion batteries for propulsion,
as a measure to reduce the gasoline consumption and mitigate
CO2 emission [7]. However, due to the high cost and insufficient
energy density of current EV batteries, EVs account for a
small fraction of the car market. Currently, EVs powered with
lithium-ion batteries have a driving range limited to 160 km
upon a single charge [8]. Tremendous research efforts have
been dedicated to increase the energy density of lithium-ion
batteries. However, the energy density of lithium-ion batteries
is around 100e200 Wh kg1, which cannot achieve the
long term goal in term of EVs [9]. Therefore, novel energy
storage systems with higher energy density are extremely
desired.
Nowadays, it is a global trend to develop EVs e startingfrom hybrid EVs to plug-in EVs and ultimately to pure EVs ewhich use state-of-the-art lithium-ion batteries for propulsion,as a measure to reduce the gasoline consumption and mitigateCO2 emission [7]. However, due to the high cost and insufficientenergy density of current EV batteries, EVs account for asmall fraction of the car market. Currently, EVs powered withlithium-ion batteries have a driving range limited to 160 kmupon a single charge [8]. Tremendous research efforts havebeen dedicated to increase the energy density of lithium-ionbatteries. However, the energy density of lithium-ion batteriesis around 100e200 Wh kg1, which cannot achieve thelong term goal in term of EVs [9]. Therefore, novel energystorage systems with higher energy density are extremelydesired.
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