many studies in verbal learning have shown the beneficial influence on later memory of having the subject practice reciting the material to be learned. A classic experiment by Gates (1972) showed that after a necessary minimum time spent passively reading the material to be learned ( biographies in one experiment, nonsense syllables in another ), students learned more,not by reading it over and over again, but trying actively to recite the material from memory, prompting or reminding themselves with the text to fill in forgotten details. The findings have held up rather well with other materials over the ensuing years. The value of active recitation is partly motivational, since the subject sets personal recall goals and checks his or her progress; the value is also partly informative, since failures in one recitation pinpoint the specific material where learning and retention efforts should be concentrated in the next cycle.