Studies by Haller (1997) and Dugdale (2001) focused to some extent on pedagogical content knowledge and teachers’ actions during classroom instruction. Haller observed 4 middle school teachers’ probability lessons in a follow-up to a summer program that included experiences with probability content, misconceptions, and pedagogical issues linked to
probability instruction. Haller’s classroom observations indicated that teachers at the lower end of the probability knowledge spectrum revealed content errors and misconceptions, relied largely on textbooks, and missed opportunities to forge relationships with fractions, decimals, and percents during probability lessons. By way of contrast, teachers with higher probability knowledge made no content errors, enhanced textbook activities, and exploited opportunities to
make connections between probability and decimals, fractions and percents. The researcher observed that teaching experience did not appear to have a great impact on the teachers’ instruction.