For many years tenure was bestowed on professors who had taught successfully for
some years, had the highest recognised academic achievements (which implied many
publications, research projects, etc.), and were recommended by tenured colleagues in
their field (Wilke, 1979). To be promoted, one is usually reviewed on the basis of
effectiveness in teaching, research (academic publications), and service. Some
universities include “cooperation” or “collegiality” in their criteria for promotion,meaning that other faculty find the person to be a tolerable colleague (Amacher and
Meiners, 2004). However, the “service” the faculty should provide is more difficult to
define, as it is related, at least in part, to academic cultures as well as to changing
policies in and reforms of higher education. For example, some professors in the social
sciences are also consultants to industry and government, and their advice is eagerly
sought by powerful decision-makers (Coser, 1971). The “service” orientation is further
highlighted by Mortimore (2000):