According to Gray (2010), waters that have CaCO3 concentrations lower than 24 mg L−1 (about 0.5 mM) have low alkalinity. The alkalinity in the present experiment was in the range 0.4–0.5 mM, an alkalinity range that has not been used earlier in carbon dioxide experiments to our knowledge. More severe effects on the growth of salmonids have been found at low alkalinity compared to high alkalinity according to Fivelstad (2012). Since the present experiment only lasted for about 5 weeks, a longer duration might have increased the effects (Colt, 2006). Carbon dioxide may be more toxic than observed if the oxygen concentration is decreased (Alabaster and Lloyd, 1982); however, in the present investigation, the oxygen saturation (above 75%) was close to levels recommended for fish farms. The overall reduction in condition factor and weight in the medium, high and very high carbon dioxide group in the present investigation, can probably be related to reduced food intake (Smart, 1981).
The carbon dioxide concentration for the very high carbon dioxide group was higher during the last part of the experiment compared to the first part, and the specific growth rate was correspondingly reduced. Concentrations above 30 mg L−1 should clearly be avoided even for short periods. The main challenge to fish exposed to elevated CO2 is the composition of the plasma, consisting of high bicarbonate concentration and low plasma chloride concentration. The change in blood plasma composition may give rise to important questions regarding fish welfare and to what extent changes in the plasma composition can be accepted. It should also be noted that some fish grew well even at high concentration (38 mg L−1) and there may be genetic and phenotypic variation in how fish cope with this situation (Byers, 2008). Further experiments are needed to see if CO2 tolerance is heritable.
Acknowledgement
The present research was supported by the Norwegian Research Council. Thanks to three referees for valuable comments and to Dr. Asbjørn Bergheim for advice in shortening the manuscript.
According to Gray (2010), waters that have CaCO3 concentrations lower than 24 mg L−1 (about 0.5 mM) have low alkalinity. The alkalinity in the present experiment was in the range 0.4–0.5 mM, an alkalinity range that has not been used earlier in carbon dioxide experiments to our knowledge. More severe effects on the growth of salmonids have been found at low alkalinity compared to high alkalinity according to Fivelstad (2012). Since the present experiment only lasted for about 5 weeks, a longer duration might have increased the effects (Colt, 2006). Carbon dioxide may be more toxic than observed if the oxygen concentration is decreased (Alabaster and Lloyd, 1982); however, in the present investigation, the oxygen saturation (above 75%) was close to levels recommended for fish farms. The overall reduction in condition factor and weight in the medium, high and very high carbon dioxide group in the present investigation, can probably be related to reduced food intake (Smart, 1981).The carbon dioxide concentration for the very high carbon dioxide group was higher during the last part of the experiment compared to the first part, and the specific growth rate was correspondingly reduced. Concentrations above 30 mg L−1 should clearly be avoided even for short periods. The main challenge to fish exposed to elevated CO2 is the composition of the plasma, consisting of high bicarbonate concentration and low plasma chloride concentration. The change in blood plasma composition may give rise to important questions regarding fish welfare and to what extent changes in the plasma composition can be accepted. It should also be noted that some fish grew well even at high concentration (38 mg L−1) and there may be genetic and phenotypic variation in how fish cope with this situation (Byers, 2008). Further experiments are needed to see if CO2 tolerance is heritable.AcknowledgementThe present research was supported by the Norwegian Research Council. Thanks to three referees for valuable comments and to Dr. Asbjørn Bergheim for advice in shortening the manuscript.
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