Even at low doses, lead exposure is associated with changes in fundamental enzymatic, energy transfer, and other processes in the body. Fetuses and children are especially susceptible to low doses of lead, often suffering central nervous system damage or slowed growth. Recent studies show that lead may be a factor in high blood pressure and subsequent heart disease in middle-aged white males. Lead may also contribute to osteoporosis in postmenopausal women. EPA's health-based national air quality standard for lead is 1.5 micrograms per cubic meter [measured as a quarterly average].